
c 



EDUCATION MANUAL EM 884 




50 

JAN 23 1946 
■trial Reeord UvMw 

ffiM Ubranr «f cwrM 






Growing Tree 
and Small Fruits 





SELECTED AND PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF 
UNITED STATES ARMED FORCES INSTITUTE 




ARMY 



FOR THE USE OF PERSONNEL OF 

NAVY - MARINE CORPS - C0AS1 GUARD 



EDUCATION MANUAL • EM 884 



Growing Tree 
and Small Fruits 



by H: B. Knapp 

State Institute of Applied Agriculture, Farmingdale, JV. Y. 

and E. C. Auchter 

United States Department of Agriculture 




PUBLISHED FOR THE UNITED STATES ARMED FORCES 
BY JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. 



Copyright, 1929, 19/4 j ^^A. 

By HALSEY B. KNAPP and EUGENE C AUCHTER ' 

PRINTED IX THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

NO PART OF THE MATERIAL COVERED BY 
THIS COPYRIGHT MAY BE REPRODUCED IN 
ANY FORM WITHOUT WRITTEN PERMISSION 
OF THE PUBLISHER 

The material presented herewith is a reprint of educational mate- 
rial taken from existing standard textbook matter now in use in 
Ameiican schools and colleges. It is published for v^e as an aid 
in instruction in certain educational activities for the armed forces. 
The statements and opinions contained are those of the authors. 

This book is not available for sale by the Superintendent of Docu- 
ments nor may it be sold or distributed in this form on the civilian 
market. 



WAR DEPARTMENT 
Washington 25, D. C, 24 June 1944 
[A. G. 300.7 (24 June 1944).] 



Additional copies should be requisitioned from USAFI, Madison 3, 
Wisconsin, or nearest Overseas Branch. 



EDUCATIONAL SERVICES SECTION, STANDARDS AND 
CURRICULUM DIVISION, TRAINING, BUREAU OF NAVAL 
PERSONNEL, NAVY DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON 25, D.C. 

Copies for Navy personnel should be requisitioned from Educational 
Services Section. 



EDUCATION SECTION, WELFARE DIVISION, SPECIAL 
SERVICES BRANCH, UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS, 
WASHINGTON 25, D.C. 

Distributed to Marine Corps personnel fiy Special Services Branch. 
Additional copies, or information, may bt obtained from unit Special 
Services Officers. 



TRAINING DIVISION, OFFICE OF PERSONNEL, COAST 
GUARD HEADQUARTERS, WASHINGTON 25, D.C. 

Copies for Coast Guard personnel should be requisitioned from The 
Commandant (PT), U. S. Coast Guard Headquarters, Washington 
25, D.C. 



N PREFACE 

y 

This book is intended to meet the needs of schools and departments 
of vocational agriculture. Since these agencies are concerned pri- 
marily with the practical phases of fruit growing, it follows that this 
book, if it achieves its purpose, should also be useful to those who are 
actually engaged in growing fruit. 

The activities are arranged on the seasonal basis, beginning with 
the harvesting of the crop, since this is the job that faces the grower 
at the time students take up their work in the fall. Each enterprise 
is broken down into its various operations just about as such opera- 
tions would present themselves for consideration in practice. The 
community studies at the end of the chapters should tie the instruc- 
tion into the practices of the local area. 

It is not necessary to begin at the front of the book and follow it 
page by page to the final chapter. In some sections of the country 
the culture of grapes, the harvesting of peaches, or the installation of 
a stationary spray plant may not be matters of commercial signifi- 
cance. The parts of the book dealing with such subjects are complete 
in themselves and may be omitted outright without detriment to the 
subjects that are of importance in any state or section. 

It has not seemed worth while to include a detailed treatment of 
the life histories of the various insects and diseases of fruit. Such a 
treatment would require a book in itself. The student has been re- 
ferred to his local experimental station and college of agriculture for 
information concerning the insects and diseases of importance in his 
community. Emphasis in this book has been placed rather on the 
mechanics of the use and application of materials for control, including 
a full discussion of machinery. 

Likewise, information concerning varieties and variety descriptions 
is available from so many authoritative sources that it has not been 
included here, other than to enumerate the varieties of commercial 
importance in the various fruit-growing sections. 

The Authors and Editors 

iii 



END-OF-COURSE TESTS 



When you have finished this course you are entitled to take a 
USAFI End-of-Course Test, and to receive a report of your score 
on the test. USAFI End-of-Course Tests may be obtained as 
follows: 

By students enrolled with USAFI : If you received this book for 
individual study through enrollment in the U. S. Armed Forces 
Institute, you may obtain the End-of-Course Test by sending an 
Application for Institute Test or Examination (ask your Informa- 
tion-Education Officer or your Educational Services Officer for an 
application blank) to the Commandant, U. S. Armed Forces 
Institute, IMadison 3, Wisconsin, or to the nearest overseas In- 
stitute Branch. 

By students enrolled in locally organized classes: li you received 
this book through enrollment in a locally organized class you may 
apply for the End-of-Course Test through your instructor. 

By other students : If you obtained this book b}^ any means other 
than enrollment with USAFI or in a locally organized class, you 
may obtain an application for an End-of-Course Test by writing 
to the Commandant, U. S. Armed Forces Institute, Madison 3, 
Wisconsin, or to the nearest overseas Institute Branch. 

CERTIFICATES OF COMPLETION 

Certificates of Completion, signed by the officers in charge of 
local education programs, are frequently issued to students who 
satisfactorily complete courses in locally organized classes. Special 
USAFI Certificates of Completion are automatically issued by the 
U. S. Armed Forces Institute to students who are enrolled in the 
Institute and who complete USAFI courses and End-of-Course 
Tests by individual study. 

USAFI Certificates of Completion are sometimes required by 
civilian schools in connection with apphcations for academic 
credit. If you have a local certificate for work done in a course 
based on this book and if a school or college has requested you 
to submit in addition a USAFI Certificate of Completion in order 
to obtain credit for the course, you must enroll in the Institute 
in order to apply for a USAFI Certificate of Completion. 



CONTENTS 



PART I: TREE FRUITS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Harvesting, Storing, and Marketing 

I. THE APPLE 

Operations. 

1. Picking 2 

2. Packing 16 

3. Determining harvesting and marketing costs ... 50 

4. Storing . 51 

5. Marketing 67 

II. THE PEACH 

Operations. 

1. Picking the fruit 112 

2. Selecting packages . 115 

3. Packing 116 

4. Loading cars . . . , . . . ... . . 117 

5. Storing 118 

6. Canning and drying 118 

7. Marketing through cooperative agencies . . . . 119 

III. THE PEAR 

Operations and factors. 

1. Picking 120 

2. Packages and packing . 121 

3. Canning and drying 121 

4. Storage and refrigeration 122 

5. Export markets 123 

6. Yields 123 

IV. THE PLUM 

Operations and factors. 

1. Picking 124 

2. Packing 125 

3. Storing 125 

4. Prunes .125 

5. Yields .127 

V 



vi CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 
V. THE CHERRY 

Operations and factors. 

1. Selling 129 

2. Cold storage 129 

3. Frozen fruit 129 

4. Yields 129 

5. Picking 131 

6. Packing 132 

VI. THE QUINCE 

Operations and factors. 

1. Picking . 132 

2. Packing 132 

3. Storage 132 

4. Yields 133 

General Information. 

1. OflScial standards for the inspection of apples . . 133 

2. United States standard containers 141 

3. Packing apples in barrels 142 

4. Modified-atmosphere storage for apples and pears . 146 

5. Frozen fruit 148 

Community Studies ' . 150 

II. Preparing for Winter and Determining Injury from 
Cold Weather 

Operations. 

1. List trees to be replaced 152 

2. Provide soil drainage 152 

3. Control mice 153 

4. Protect trees from mice and rabbits 154 

5. Determine injury from cold weather 157 

General Information. 

1. Necessity of maturing and hardening wood tissues . 160 

Community Studies 161 

III. Establishing the Orchard 
Operations. 

1. Selecting the region ... 162 

2. Determining the size of the enterprise 165 

3. Selecting the land to be planted . 169 

4. Determining time of planting 173 



CONTENTS vii 

CHAPTER PAGE 

5. Determining varieties to plant 174 

6. Determining planting distances and planting plan . 178 

7. Purchasing trees 182 

8. Caring for trees on arrival 188 

9. Preparing field for planting 190 

10. Planting the trees 194 

General Information. 

1. Apple regions and varieties . 195 

2. Peach regions and varieties 201 

3. Pear regions and varieties 202 

4. Cherry regions and varieties 203 

5. Plum regions and varieties . . . . . . . . 204 

6. Quince regions and varieties . 204 

7. Apricot regions and varieties 204 

8. Stocks for fruit trees 205 

Community Studies 206 

IV. The Growth of the Tree and the Forming of Fruit Buds 
Procedure: 

(a) Consider different kinds of tree "growth . . . . 207 

(b) Determine when length growth ceases .... 208 

(c) Determine when growth in thickness ceases . . . 208 

(d) Study and determine the location of leaf bud^, fruit 

r buds, and fruit spurs \ 208 

(e) Consider the fruiting habits of different fruits . . 210 

(f) Determine the time and manner of fruit-bud 

formation 214 

Tree physiology and nutrition . . . . . . . . 217 

Community Studies 223 



V. Pruning 

Operations. 

1. Deciding when the pruning should be done . . . 225 

2. Determining how heavily the trees should be pruned 226 



3. Selecting the pruning tools 230 

4. Pruning the different tree fruits . , . . . . 232 

5. Determining pruning costs 264 

General Information. 

Hemoval of trees from the orchard . . . . . 267 

Community Studies 267 



Yiii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

VI. Controlling Insects and Diseases 
Operations. 

1. Determining insects and diseases to be controlled . 270 

2. Selecting and preparing materials for control . . . 273 

3. Determining time of application of materials and 

amomits to use 291 

4. Selecting machinery and equipment for making appli- 

cations 304 

5. Applying materials 340 

6. Determining costs of the spraying program . . . 353 

7. Adopting control measures other than spraying . . 355 

General Information. 

ControUing peach tree borer 358 

Community Studies 359 

VII. Propagating Fruit Plants 
Operations and Factors. 

1. Cleft grafting . 362 

2. Inlay or bark grafting . 371 

3. Whip grafting 373 

4. Shield budding 377 

5. Bridge grafting 380 

6. Propagating by cuttings 383 

7. Propagating by layers 386 

8. Grafting preparations 387 

General Information 388 

Community Studies 389 

VIII. Pollination and Fruit Setting 
Factors and Operations. 

1. How poUination and fertilization take place . . . 390 

2. Self-fruitful and self-unfruitful tree fruits . . . 394 

3. Determining need for cross-pollination .... 395 

4. Reviewing the case 401 

5. Using bees for cross-pollination 404 

6. Treatment of established orchards in need of cross- 

poUination 407 

Community Studies 409 



CONTENTS ix 

CHAPTER PAGE 

IX. Managing Orchard Soils and Fertilizing the Trees. 

Diagnosing Growth Conditions and Prescribing 
Treatment 

Operations. 

Managing Orchard Soils 

1. Determining the system of apple-orchard culture 

to use 410 

2. Selecting the implements for soil management . . 426 

3. Determining culture of other tree fruits . . . 430 

Fertilizing the Trees 

1. Deciding whether fertilizers are needed for apple 

trees 432 

2. Deciding which fertilizers are needed .... 432 

3. Deciding how much fertihzer to use and when to 

apply it 434 

4. Applying the fertilizer 436 

5. Determining the cost of applying fertilizers . . 436 

6. Fertihzing other tree fruits 436 

Diagnosing growth conditions and prescribing treatment . 439 
Community Studies ........... 440 

X. Thinning Fruit 

Operations. 

1. Consider conditions imder which thinning is advisable 443 

2. Consider results that may be expected from thinning . 445 

3. Determining time to thin 448 

4. Thinning apples 448 

5. Thinning peaches 451 

6. Thinning plums 452 

Community Studies 452 

XI. Fruit Exhibits and Judging 
Operations. 

1. Selecting fruit for exhibit 454 

2. Setting up the exhibit 455 

3. Judging fruit 459 



How to identify varieties of fruit 



465 



X 



CONTENTS 



PART II. GROWING SMALL FRUITS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XII. Growing Strawberries 
Operations. 

1. Selecting the location and soil 468 

2. Preparing the field 470 

3. Selecting varieties 470 

4. Determining time of planting 472 

5. Determining the planting system . * 473 

6. Setting the plants 475 

7. Managing the soil 479 

8. Controlling insects and diseases 483 

9. Protecting the plants in winter 484 

10. Harvesting and marketing the crop 485 

11. Determining treatment of plantation after harvest . 489 

General Information. 

1. Everbearing varieties 491 

2. Commercial varieties 492 

Community Studies . . . . 493 

XIII. Growing Grapes 
Operations. 

1. Determining size of the enterprise 497 

2. Selecting the location 498 

3. Selecting the soil 498 

4. Selecting varieties 499 

5. Determining time of planting 500 

6. Determining planting distances 500 

7. Securing the plants - . 500 

8. Setting the plants 501 

9. Managing the soil 503 

10. Training the vines 509 

11. Controlling insects and diseases 520 

12. Harvesting the crop 520 

13. Marketing the crop 522 

14. Protecting vines in winter . ' 527 

Growing Muscadine grapes . 527 

Community Studies 528 



CONTENTS xi 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XIV. Growing Bush Fruits 

Section I. — Growing the Brambles 529 

Operations. 

1. Determining the size of the enterprise .... 532 

2. Selecting the location and soil 532 

3. Determining the time of planting 533 

4. Secm-ing the plants 533 

5. Selecting varieties 535 

6. Preparing the soil . . . . . . / . . . . 537 

7. Determining the planting plan 537 

8. Setting the plants 539 

9. Managing the soil . . . . 540 

10. Pruning and training the plants 543 

11. Controlling diseases and insects 551 

12. Harvesting and marketing the crop 553 

13. Protecting the plants in winter . . . . . . 558 

General Information. 

Varieties 559 

Community Studies . .561 

Section II. — Growing Currants and Gooseberries . . . 562 
Operations. 

1. Establishing the plantation 563 

2. Pruning and training the plants 567 

3. Managing the soil 568 

4. Controlling diseases and insects ...... 569 

5. Harvesting and marketing the crop 569 

Community Studies . ' . 571 

Section III. — Growing the Cultivated Blueberry . . . 572 

Operations. ^ 

1. Selecting the soil . 573 

2. Establishing the plantation 573 

3. Pruning the plants 575 

4. Controlling insects, diseases, and birds . . . 577 

5. Harvesting and marketing 579 



xii CONTENTS , 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XV. Shall I Be a Fruit Grower? 
Factors. 

1. Is my interest in fruit growing based on actual experi- 

ence? 582 

2. How does my interest in fruit growing compare with 

my interest in other agricultural enterprises? . . 582 

3. Would I be wilhng to undergo cheerfully the limita- 

tions connected with fruit production? . . . . 583 

Cost of production . , . . 586 

Purchasing power 587 

Diversification 590 

Summary ' . . 591 

Appendix 593 

Index , . 595 



aHOWINa TEEE AND SMALL FEUITS 



Part I. TREE FRUITS 

CHAPTER I 

HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 

The grower lays the foundation for a satisfactory harvest 
when he prunes, sprays, thins his fruit, and manages the soil 
properly. No attention given at the harvest season itself can 
make up for neglect of these essential factors of orchard man- 
agement. 

One of the best things the fruit grower can do at the outset 
is to take membership in organizations which seek to promote 
the industry by which he makes his living. Among these 
would be his state horticultural society by whatever name 
called, the sectional or local horticultural organizations, and 
the county farm bureau. Study the rei^^Hs from these organ- 
izations, give careful consideration to their suggestions, and 
attend their meetings whenever possible. Keep informed 
through the United States Department of Agriculture and 
other sources regarding crop prospects and yields, cold-storage 
holdings, shipments, etc. Such action constitutes the best 
investment the grower can make and offers the highest insur- 
ance at the cheapest rate that he can have on his business. 

I. THE APPLE 

In planning for the harvest and all the activities that relate 
to the handling of the crop, the grower must give consideration 
to the following major factors. 

1 



2 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



Operations : 

1. Picking. 

2. Packing. 

3. Determining harvesting marketing costs. 

4. Storing. 

5. Marketing. 

In some seasons and in some sections the grower may not 
himself assume responsibility for all these factors. Before he 
can decide whether or at what stage he should turn the matter 
over to others, he must know what is involved in carrying 
through the complete program himself. 

1. Picking. Once the fruit is ready to pick there is no 
time for matters that should have received attention earlier. 
The product is perishable. It must not remain too long on the 
trees for it will spoil or freeze. It must not drop to the ground 
for it will bruise. The time when it is at its best for handling 
is short. 

Procedure: 

(a) Estimating the yield. 

(b) Providing adequate equipment. 

(c) Securing an adequate supply of labor. 

(d) Determining the proper time for picking. 

(e) Picking the crop. 

(a) Estimating the Yield, Many growers and buyers at- 
tain great proficiency in estimating yields while the fruit is 
still on the trees. This faculty comes only as a result of prac- 
tice based on careful study of the trees and a knowledge of the 
bearing habits of varieties. For instance, a Tompkins King 
tree seldom measures up in performance to its apparent prom- 
ise. It '^shows up/' for all and more than it is worth. On the 
other hand, Mcintosh and York Imperial, which bear all 
through the top, will habitually do better than they promise. 

Yields per tree or per acre vary with many factors. Among 
these are age and variety, number of trees per acre, methods of 
management, and the region itself. 



PICKING 



3 



Most published figures on production are of limited value 
to the individual orchardist because they are usually based on 
all orchards in a certain section. Among these are often or- 
chards receiving poor care, those just coming into bearing, and 
those well past their prime. 

A yield of 200 to 250 bushels per acre of packed fruit is 
probably an average figure for good commercial orchards in 
full bearing in New York, the oldest fruit section in the 
country. To this must be added a proportion of the crop, 
varying with the season and the care, which may be mer- 
chantable in the form of by-products, but which does not 
justify incurring package and packing costs for it. The good 
grower in every region constantly seeks to reduce this propor- 
tion of low-grade fruit and to increase the quantity of quality 
stock. 

The average yield in commercial orchards of the Middle 
West is perhaps 175 bushels per acre, the yields showing con- 
siderable variation from year to year in some sections, as Mis- 
souri. Yields in Ohio, Michigan, and adjacent territory, as 
well as in the New England fruit sections, are similar to those 
of New York. Yields in the Atlantic Coast States, especially 
those of the Shenandoah-Cumberland section, in full crop 
years compare favorably with those of New York, but yields 
are more variable, largely owing to frost damage in the spring 
when the trees are in bloom. 

In the Pacific Northwest yields per acre run higher with a 
lower percentage of cull stock than in other orchard sections. 
This is due in part to younger trees, a larger number of trees 
per acre, and more intensive methods of management. The 
Wenatchee Valley of Washington has been producing from 500 
to 600 boxes of 40-45 pounds per acre as an average from or- 
chards in commercial bearing. The Yakima Valley in the same 
state has produced from 400 to 500 boxes and the Hood River 
Valley of Oregon 250 to 400 boxes per acre. The trees in these 
sections have commonly been set about 20 by 20 feet, account- 
ing in part for the higher yields. In many orchards part of the 



4 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



trees are now being removed to give more distance between 
trees. This will probably reduce the yield per acre for a few 
years at least. Although trees come into bearing younger in 
the Pacific Northwest than in the Eastern States, it is probable 
that their productive life is considerably less. 

Table 1 gives the average annual total and commercial 
production of apples in the United States for the 1927-36 
period and separately for 1937 and 1938, This table brings 
out the marked variations in given years from the long-term 
average. Over a long period of time total production is de- 
clining while commercial production is being maintained. 
This is probably due to better orchard management and the 
gradual concentration of the apple industry in the more- 
favored fruit regions. 

TABLE 1 

Production of Apples in the United States 





Average 
1927-36 


1937 


1938 


Total, bushels 

Commercial,* bushels. . . 


150,728,000 
92,821,000 


210,783,000 
115,733,000 


131,882,000 
82,395,000 



♦The part of the total crop sold for consumption in the fresh or original state. 



The leading commercial states in order of their importance 
are listed in Table 2. Note that there are wide fluctuations 
from year to year from the long-term average. These fluc- 
tuations are less marked in the Pacific Coast States than 
elsewhere. Figure 1 also emphasizes this point. 

The grower should study his orchards after the crop has 
set, after the "June drop/' and at least once more a month 
before harvest. He should estimate the probable yield by in- 
specting at least 5 trees per acre carefully, taking pains not to 
be misled by heavier crops on outside rows or on unimportant 
varieties, or by a few trees carrying abnormal loads. If he 



PICKING 5 
TABLE 2 



Commercial Production of Apples by States 



State 


1 Q97-*^fi 

Xfy^ 1 "OVJ 

A TroTQ rro 
^ V Ul 


1937 


1938 


1939 




innn hu 

ILfUw UU/, 


innn hu 


innn hn 

J.\J\J\J UUj» 


\A/ Q o r»in rr'f 




99 4.^0 


91 ^00 


1Q ^00 




1 1 44.4- 


19 Sfi*^ 


Q ROO 


14 ^00 


\/ IT* on Til P 


7 fiOQ 


1 0 .^Q1 


fi 800 


7 500 


1 . Q 1 1 T /^Tn 1 Q 


4- Q4.fl 


f^9Q 


4 909 


4 ^^4 


iV/li /^r»i rron 






4 800 


7 800 






O, lUU 


9 P^OO 


9 1 ^0 




^ 74-9 




^ 800 


100 




^ 410 


5 500 


3 150 


4 000 




9 Qfi4 


fi 000 




800 






9 1 f^4 


9 f^OO 


9 000 




9 89^ 


QOO 


1 Q^O 


4 700 






^ fiOO 


9 7P>0 


9 Q^O 




9 ORl 


9 PiQ5^ 




9 490 




1 744 


1 1 1fi 

JL,X11J 


1 700 

Xj 1 \J\J 


1 100 


Maryland 


1,266 


1,750 


1,350 


1,700 


Delaware 


1,146 


2,144 


1,450 


1,750 


Missouri 


1,137 


2,200 


200 


1,400 


Connecticut 


957 


1,500 


946 


1,030 


Maine 


953 


769 


523 


900 


Arkansas 


845 


1,288 


200 


625 


Indiana 


812 


1,700 


633 


1,250 


Kansas 


725 


978 


500 


770 



will check these estimates against the final yield, doing this 
year after year, correcting his figures according to the lessons 
of the past, he will eventually be able to make estimates that 
will be of very great value to him. 

(6) Providing Adequate Equipment. The first thing to do 
is to inventory the equipment on hand that is in usable con- 
dition. Each picker should have a ladder which he can use 
where needed and for which he is responsible. The ladder 



6 



HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



should be light, strong, and well balanced. A flaring base 
increases its stability. A ladder which is wide at the bottom 
and tapers gradually to a point at the top is popular in many 
sections. It can be shoved between the branches and into 
small openings without disturbing the fruit and is raised 
easily by one man. In other sections the open top pattern 

Commercial apples: U.S. production by regions j.919-39 

BUSHELS I 




• AUGUST t FORECAST 

{V. S. D. A.) 

Fig. 1. About 60 percent of the total apple crop is commercial apples, 
and the commercial crop is only slightly lower than it was 10 years ago. 
Of the commercial crop, the Atlantic Coast States produce about 45 
percent, the Western States about 35 per cent, and the Central States 
about 20 percent. Commercial production fluctuates less in the Western 
States than in the Central and Atlantic Coast States; 

is preferred. Either type may be desirable or undesirable, 
depending upon the man who handles it. 

Ladders of uniform type and length are best in orchards of 
a given age. Many growers have adopted a 22-foot ladder for 
bearing orchards; ladders of greater length are difficult for 
one man to handle. Use as short a ladder as possible^ keeping 
in mind that pickers cannot work on a ladder in a position too 
nearly vertical and that frequent reaching above the head 



PICKING 



7 



because the ladder is too short reduces the quantity of fruit 
picked. 

The tops of many trees in some of the older sections cannot 
be picked with anything shorter than a 28- or 30-foot ladder. 
If such trees have a place in the commercial orchards of the 
future, a well-balanced extension ladder will meet the need. 
Step ladders are also useful for small trees and those with 
bearing surfaces near the 
ground. A single leg or 
prop in front prevents tip- 
ping. See Fig. 3. 

In selecting receptacles 
for picking, safety of fruit 
from injury is the first con- 
sideration. The second is 
ease and rapidity of ma- 
nipulation. Oak-stave bas- 
kets, half-bushel or three- 
quarter-bushel size, with 
drop handles and padded 
inside have been popular 
in many sections. How- 
ever, the picker spends so 
much time in moving them 
about, even though the handles are equipped with hooks, and 
it is so easy to dump the basket by catching it on a branch, 
perhaps losing all the fruit in it, that this type of receptacle 
is losing favor. 

Large pails are preferred by many orchardists. They may 
be attached to a strap over the shoulders. They are especi- 
ally desirable for tender varieties. The sound of careless 
pickers dropping the apples into them may be readily heard. 
Picking bags with bottoms that open may answer for harder 
varieties and in the hands of careful pickers. The bag enables 
the picker to use both hands in picking but he is liable to bruise 
the fruit by knocking the bag against the rungs of the ladder. 




Fig. 2. Careful inspection of the trees 
is essential to a dependable crop 
estimate. 



8 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



A metal picking bucket, with a canvas drop bottom, sus- 
pended from the shoulders of the picker is now used almost ex- 
clusively on the Pacific Coast and is gaining favor in Eastern 
sections (Figs. 4 and 5) . The sides have sufficient rigidity to 
protect the fruit, and the receptacle is easily carried and 
emptied. 




Fig. 3. Types of orchard ladders. The extension ladder at the left is too 
cumbersome. The three ladders at the right, in varying lengths depend- 
ing on the height of the trees, are most desirable, A distinct flare at 

the base increases stability. 

If the trees are low and the crop is heavy, a 16-quart 
peach basket makes a very good picking container. It can be 
attached to the picker either by a heavy adjustable canvas 
strap with hooks on each end of it or by fastening the ends to 
a wire ring that will fit under the hoop on the basket. 

Any receptacle may be satisfactory when used by a careful 
workman; any may be objectionable, if carelessly used. 

Receptacles into which the fruit may be emptied by the 



PICKING 



9 



pickers must be provided. Slat crates are convenient to handle 
and stack, but the sharp edges may dent and injure the fruit 
unless the slats are close enough together to prevent this. Lug 
boxes of solid but unfinished lumber, with slots in each end for 
the hands and holding about a bushel, make good packages. 




mits the picker to use both hands. Some 

growers prefer a larger receptacle, espe- Fig. 5. The same as Fig. 4 opened 
cially for picking trees with high heads. to empty the fruit. The bucket may 

be carried under one arm with the 
strap over the shoulder, if desired. 



By nailing strips on the top of each end, they may be stacked 
without injury to the fruit. 

Trucks, trailers, or wagons should be low to eliminate 
as much lifting as possible. They should be equipped with 
good springs and rubber tires so that the fruit will be carried 
as carefully as possible. To be able to maneuver between the 
trees the trucks must turn in a small place. Many fruit 



10 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



growers make their orchard trucks from hea\y second-hand 
cars. Others use equipment which is specially designed by a 
manufacturer of farm machinery. Wide racks to hold the 
packages should be provided. 

Containers in which to pack the fruit are treated later. The 
grower will naturally, however, inventory his supply on hand 
and order his requirements, including graders or other ma- 
chinery, for the coming season, when he is arranging for the 
equipment for his picking operations. A considerable saving 
may usually be made by ordering early in the season. 

(c) Securing an Adequate Supply of Labor, In established 
orchard regions, practically all workers have had experience in 
harvesting the crop. In addition to the labor which is resident 
in the section throughout the year, hundreds of roving workers, 
both men and women, may come in for the picking season. 
Frequently they return year after year and form a valuable 
source of supply. The grower should have a nucleus of respon- 
sible resident workers on whom he can rely. He may com- 
plete his picking gang from this floating help. 

In determining the amount of help needed, the grower must 
be governed by the normal picking dates of his varieties, the 
crop of each variety in a given year, and the amount of time at 
his disposal to complete the picking operation. Such factors 
as the location of the orchard, on steep or level land, and the 
height of the trees will also enter in. 

Picking is done by the day or by the piece. Picking by 
the bushel will take more fruit from the trees in a given length 
of time, but often it results in careless handling and serious 
injury to the apples. Where the quantity to be picked is not 
great, day labor well supervised will give better results ; where 
large quantities must be handled, the contract system, even 
more carefully supervised, is preferable. The quantity picked 
in a day will vary with many factors, as height of trees, how 
full trees are, size of fruit, the ease with which it separates 
from the spurs, etc. Under the piecework plan in the older 
fruit sections with large and high trees, 50 to 60 bushels per 



PICKING 



11 



day is a good average for an experienced picker who does 
his work well. 

In the younger orchards where trees with low heads and a 
broad bearing surface in proportion to their height have been 
developed, 75 to 100 bushels per day will be picked by piece- 
work under normal conditions. 

Day work will yield on the average from two-thirds to 
three-fourths as much fruit as piecework. 

(d) Determining the Proper Time for Picking. The time 
for picking must be determined both by economic and natural 
factors. If the crop is large, the grower cannot wait until all 
the fruit is in the best natural condition. He must begin his 
harvest soon enough so that he may complete it before the 
fruit is too long past the most favorable condition. If he has 
varieties that mature a few weeks or even days apart, it will 
help considerably in organizing his picking operations. 

Consult the information on page 177 for the number of 
days certain varieties require to mature as determined by the 
United States Department of Agriculture. Always keep a 
record of the date of full bloom of your varieties, and note 
the variation in these dates from year to year. 

Early or summer varieties which are moved to market at 
once should usually be picked as soon as they reach merchant- 
able size and color and while prices are good. Later increases 
in size and color usually are not sufiBcient to offset the rapidly 
falling market. 

If the fruit is to be held in storage for an indefinite time 
after picking, the proper stage for picking becomes of very 
great importance. This is especially true of varieties subject 
to storage scald. The firmness of the flesh of the apple, the 
amount of yellowing or the change in ground color in the 
unblushed portions, and the ease with which the fruit separates 
from the spurs are among the most important evidences of 
proper maturity. 

The degree of yellowing in the uncolored portion of the 
fruit away from the sun is of considerable significance as an 



12 



HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



indication of proper maturity. Standard color charts are 
available from the United States Department of Agriculture. 

The development of red color is a factor of great economic 
importance. Red varieties should be left on the tree as long as 
is possible with safety so that they may attain the highest 
possible color. The dark or leaf green of the ground color 
should be replaced by a decidedly lighter shade. Apples 
picked while dead green, as has often been done with Rhode 
Island Greening, are likely to '^scald/' or turn brown in 
storage. 

Apples ripening in warm weather must be picked promptly 
since they will deteriorate rapidly; those ripening in the late 
fall may be picked over a longer period. The grower should 
keep in mind that fruit ripens more slowly on the tree under 
normal conditions than after picking or when held in common 
storage. In other words the best place to keep apples, unless 
they can go immediately into cold storage, is often on the tree. 

The brown color of the seeds is another indication of ap- 
proaching maturity but it is by no means conclusive evidence. 
Apples grown in sod will mature more quickly than those grown 
under cultivation. Those grown in sandy soils will mature 
sooner than those grown in heavy soils. Fruit on the north 
side of a tree colors more slowly than that on the south or east 
sides. 

As a general rule, pick the apples when most of them sepa- 
rate easily from the fruit spurs, and before they begin to drop 
freely. They will in most cases still be hard and firm. 

With some varieties, as Mcintosh, it may be necessary 
to make two or even more pickings in order to save the market- 
able fruit, as some of the apples will color and drop before 
the others are ready. Likewise trees of Wealthy may need 
several pickings in order that all the crop may be of good size 
and color. Going over the trees more than once, or ^'spot 
picking, is becoming general practice in many fruit sections. 
It is especially desirable in sections growing and packing high- 
quality fruit. It is usually justifiable on the basis both of suffi- 



PICKING 



13 



cient increase in value of the product, and of taking advantage 
of the high prices often, prevailing early in the season. 

Some varieties naturally ^^hang'^ better than others. The 
good grower knows this and takes advantage of the fact in his 
picking plans. In general, a variety with a long stem may be 
-left longer than a variety with a short, clublike stem. 

In recent years, to avoid repeated pickings and obtain the 
best possible color, experiments have been conducted to see 
to w^hat extent apples change color after they have been 
picked. With some varieties a much improved color may be 
obtained on the green apples left on a mulch under the tree 
for a few days. This is especially true of Mcintosh. Such 
fruit, when placed in storage, does not remain as firm as fruit 
freshly stored. If it is watched carefully, however, it may be 
placed on the market as of a higher grade than if it lacked 
the added color. The fruit should not be placed in direct 
sunlight, but in partial shade. Developments in this field 
should be watched carefully during the next few years, especi- 
ally in sections close to market. 

A New Consideration, Efforts are now being made to con- 
trol the pre-harvest drop of apples by spraying the fruit with 
certain plant hormones or growth substances. Rather re- 
markable results have been achieved to date, and the investi- 
gations are being continued. Work in this field has thus far 
been done by the United States Department of Agriculture 
at its horticultural station at Beltsville, Maryland, and in 
cooperation with the Department of Pomology of Cornell 
University in western New York. 

The matter is of great importance to the grower, since any 
economical procedure which will both hold the fruit longer on 
the trees and increase its color works greatly to his advantage. 
The yield of hand-picked fruit will be correspondingly in- 
creased, the higher color adds to the value of every bushel, 
and the lengthened period of harvest helps the grower with his 
labor problem. Some varieties, noticeably Mcintosh, drop 
freely and almost unpredictably. It so happens that Mcintosh 



14 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



is one of the varieties most influenced by the treatment. How- 
ever, all the twenty odd varieties thus far used in the ex- 
periments have responded to a marked degree. 

The treatment delays the formation of the abscission layer 
between the stem and the spur, and because of this delay 
the fruit does not drop. Among the many synthetic growth 
substances used, naphthaleneacetic acid and naphthaleneace- 
tanide have been most effective with little to choose between 
them. Quantities used are exceedingly small, a concentration 
of 0.0005 percent or 5 parts per million being effective. This 
is about a half teaspoonful to 100 gallons of water. The 
materials to date have been dissolved in small quantities of 
ethyl or methyl alcohol (merely to hasten solution) and 
added directly to water in the spray tank. The use of spreaders 
has also seemed desirable. Combinations with the usual 
orchard sprays have not been attempted because this is a 
harvest or pre-harvest application. 

The coverage of the fruit must be thorough. This may 
require from 5-8 gallons on small bearing trees to as much 
as 20 gallons on large trees carrying heavy crops. The effect 
of the application on most varieties is marked for 2 to 3 weeks. 
With Mcintosh, however, with materials used to date the 
effect diminishes sharply after 8 or 9 days. It is probable, 
therefore, that the application should be made on Mcintosh 
just as dropping begins. A second spray may be applied as 
the effect of the first wears off if the quantity of fruit to be 
harvested and the cost make it advisable. 

Mcintosh trees receiving the one treatment have yielded 
nearly 14 bushels of picked fruit against 8 bushels from check 
trees. At the end of 8 days after the treatment the percentage 
of drop has been 6.8 percent against 35.9 percent on check 
trees. To date no undesirable after-effects on fruit or tree 
have been noted. 

Costs at present are rather high (in 1939, four or five cents 
per gallon of spray). It is expected, however, that, with a 
large potential market, chemical companies wil) be able 



PICKING 



15 



greatly to reduce these costs and bring them well within the 
range of economical procedure for the grower. Substantial 
improvements in convenience of handling, probably making 
the materials available in units to be added to the spray tank, 
are also expected. 

It should be kept in mind that these are preliminary find- 
ings. Future developments should be watched with the 
greatest care. The matter is one of great possibilities and 
implications. The grower should keep in touch with the 
United States Department of Agriculture, the experimental 
stations and colleges, and the usual public service agencies. 

{e) Picking the Crop, Begin with the lower branches and 
work upward in order to reduce dropping of fruit to a mini- 
mum. The stems should not be twisted or torn out, because 
appearance and keeping qualities are injured. The spurs 
should not be damaged, because on them depends subsequent 
crops. The fruit must not be cut with the finger nails or 
dropped into the receptacle. It is a ruinous and shortsighted 
policy to bring fruit to maturity in a high degree of perfection 
and then to depreciate its value in the picking and packing 
processes. 

Remove the fruit with an upward motion and twist of the 
wrist. Harvest it only when dry, if possible, since wet fruit 
has a soiled appearance, and, if it goes into a closed packing at 
once, provides favorable conditions for development of scab, 
mold, etc. 

As a rule, put only one or at most two men on a tree, both 
because of greater efficiency in the picking process, and because 
their work may be carefully checked. 

A convenient way for one man to raise a ladder is to thrust 
one leg or side of the ladder into the ground or against a firm 
support and to elevate it sidewise, exerting some pressure down- 
ward at the same time to keep the base from slipping. In car- 
rying the ladder allow it to tip back over the head slightly out 
of the vertical, grasping a rung near the base with one hand and 
another rung with a hand extended above the head. 



16 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



Place the ladder when possible in such a position that if dis- 
lodged it will fall toward the center of the tree, so that its fall 
will be arrested before it has gone far. Most accidents come 
from failure to observe this precaution. 

The pickers should be relieved of the fruit near the trees 
they are picking so that they give all their time to the picking 
operation. Other workers may empty the fruit carefully into 
crates or lug boxes to be hauled to some central point or 
packing shed, or if the fruit is packed in the orchard, they 
may take it directly to the packing tables. There should 
be an adequate supply of picking receptacles so that the 
pickers do not have to wait for them. 

The rate of picking has been indicated in connection with 
securing an adequate supply of labor. The grower may well 
give considerable thought to the details of organization of his 
picking crew, in order that the job may be well done, with the 
greatest possible efficiency under the conditions. With cold 
weather approaching, with heavy winds in prospect and the 
fruit ready to come off, every hour is precious. 

2. Packing. Whether or not the grower packs his own 
fruit will depend upon the method of sale of his crop as pre- 
sented under '^Marketing." In any case, the fruit should 
either be packed at once after picking, or put in storage where 
deterioration will be arrested until the packing is done. Some 
growers who have their own cold-storage plants put the fruit 
as it comes from the trees directly into storage and pack it out 
at their convenience and as they wish to market it, after the 
picking season is over. As a rule, however, storage costs should 
not be incurred on fruit which will be discarded in the packing 
operation and by far the larger proportion of the commercial 
crop is packed immediately after picking. 

Procedure : 

(a) Determining type of package to use. 
(6) Determining grades and sizes to be made, 
(c) Determining where packing is to be done. 



PACKING 



17 



(d) Grading the fruit. 

(e) Packing in barrels. 

(/) Packing in Western boxes. 

(g) Packing in Eastern boxes. 

(h) Packing in baskets. 

(i) Removing spray residues. 

(a) Determining Type of Package to Use. Apples go to 
market in many containers. Each has its uses and particular 
adaptations. 

In making his decision as to the type of package to use the 
grower should take into account the following factors: 

(1) Varieties. 

(2) Quality of the crop. 

(3) Market preferences and tendencies. 

(4) Size of commercial crop. 

(5) Size of individual crop. 

(6) Where crop is marketed. 

(7) Specifications of packages. 

(1) Varieties, Quality apples should go into a package 
that means quality to the buyer and consumer. It is equally 
true that quality packages should not be used for mediocre 
fruit. Quality in fruit is a term which to the consumer means 
external attractiveness and finish, as much as or more than 
flavor. 

Some varieties are extremely tender. Mcintosh is an exam- 
ple. Varieties that are commonly regarded as dessert or eat- 
ing apples should as a rule be packed in containers that insure 
as far as possible freedom from bruising and perfect condition. 

Varieties of medium quality purchased for cooking and gen- 
eral uses, as Baldwin or York Imperial, may well be packed 
in the larger containers. 

(2) Quality of the Crop. Owing to the season or to better 
management on the part of the grower, the quality of the crop 
may be much higher one year than another. This may justify 
a change in the type of package used. The appearance and 



18 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



finish of the crop may raise it not only to a higher grade but 
perhaps to a package representing higher standards. The 
grower should not be misled, however, by the presence of a 
minor quantity of highly colored and attractive specimens in 
the crop. To pack these into the higher grades may so reduce 
the appearance of the remainder of the crop as to make the 
project uneconomical. The attempt to pack the whole crop 
in a higher grade than the bulk of the crop justifies may have 
the same result. 

(3) Market Preferences and Tendencies, The grower is 
concerned not merely with the disposition of his crop for a 
single year. The general trend of the market in its preferences 
is of great importance to him. 

Market standards and requirements are gradually on the 
upgrade. Products, packages, and methods of packing accept- 
able to one generation may not satisfy generations that follow. 

A few years ago the barrel was a very common package 
for domestic use. Now it is limited almost entirely to export 
trade. The barrel is a larger package than the fruit trade 
or the ultimate consumer of the present generation desires. 
It is not a good display package. Careless methods of pack- 
ing and its use for mediocre fruit, much of which should not 
have been put in closed packages, have destroyed confidence 
in it. 

Boxes of one style or another and holding approximately 
one bushel are the favored commercial packages of the day. 
They vary as to design and type and method of packing ac- 
cording to section and use as indicated under (7) Specifications 
of Packages, 

Bushel baskets are still used but are losing favor. They 
are difficult to stack and store and are not rigid enough to 
give the fruit as much protection as is desirable. 

Many small containers of family size for roadside stands 
and direct to the consumer trade have been developed. 

The important thing is to determine which package the 
particular trade to be served desires. 



PACKING 



19 



(4) Size of Commercial Crop. When the commercial crop 
of the country is short, the proportion of the crop to be put in 
closed packages may usually be increased to advantage. When 
the crop is average or above, the standards must be raised 
correspondingly, only the better fruit being likely to pay the 
attendant costs. 

This does not mean that the grades themselves should be 
changed from year to year. To have value, such grades should 
mean the same thing each year to the trade, thus giving sta- 
bility to the market. It does mean that fruit which may not 
pay in its proper grade in years of heavy production may pay 
well when so packed in years of shortage. 

(5) Size of Individual Crop, The grower's procedure with 
regard to packages will be governed somewhat by the size of 
his own crop. With a short crop, he can give special attention 
to his packing, and to training resident laborers in improved 
packing practices. Such labor will then be ready to assist him 
in years of heavy production. 

(6) Where Crop is Marketed, The export trade recognizes 
but three packages, the box, the barrel, and the bushel basket. 
When the grower uses his own local market, the number and 
type of packages that are acceptable increase considerably. 
Selection of packages must thus be made with the market in 
mind. 

(7) Specifications of Packages, Barrel: The standard 
apple barrel possesses the following specifications: 

Length of stave 28^/^ inches, diameter of head 17% inches, distance 
between heads 26 inches, circumference at center 64 inches outside meas- 
urement, capacity 7056 cubic inches. Its capacity is thus somewhat more 
than 3 bushels. Federal laws require its branding ''Min. Vol. 3 bu." 
A barrel of like capacity is also standard, though its dimensions may 
differ. An apple barrel is made of gum, oak, pine, poplar, birch, etc., the 
harder woods being more difficult to work by the cooper and not making 
as neat a package. The hoops are usually second-growth elm, six in 
number on the American barrel, two at each end and two quarter hoops. 
The Canadian barrel has eight hoops. Wire and iron hoops are used to 
some extent. The heads are of hard wood, preferably ash. A No. 1 



20 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



barrel has 16 staves, free from knots, averaging 4 inches in width at the 
bilge, and heads of 2 or 3 pieces. 

The barrel comes to the grower set up with heads and hoops 
in place, but without nails as a rule, although two nails are 
sometimes used to fasten each quarter hoop. The barrel can 
thus be stored until needed for use without danger of warping. 

Box: The box is usually of spruce or pine and should be 
made up from sound, clean stock, dressed on the outer surface. 

In the East the most common box is one which, when 
properly filled, contains 1% bushels. It is not intended to be 
filled higher than the ends of the box or to become a closed 
package with a bulge on top and bottom like the Western box. 

The New York and New England or Eastern apple box is 16 by 13% 
by IIV2 inches, inside dimensions. The ends and cleats are %6 inch thick, 
sides % inch, and the tops and bottoms %6 inch thick. 

The Western box is heavier for longer transportation. It is 10% by 
11% by 18 inches, inside measurements. For odd sizes of fruit the 
special box, 10 by 11 by 20 inches, is used. One-piece ends are % inch 
thick. Tops and bottoms consist of two pieces % inch thick; sides of 
one piece % inch thick. Many firms furnishing box materials outside 
the commercial box regions depart from these specifications, but experi- 
ence has demonstrated that changes, if made at all, should be made only 
within very narrow limits. Tops and bottoms must be thin enough to 
spring when the box is packed, thus making the bulge which insures a 
tight pack, automatically kept so by the tension of top and bottom. 
After packing, the boxes are piled on the sides. Boxes should be nailed, 
as dovetailed boxes have not proved satisfactory. 

Boxes may be purchased either flat (Knocked Down — K.D.) 
or nailed ready for use, the first being the usual custom. Many 
local dealers in supplies have nailing machines and will nail 
the boxes more economically than the grower can do it by hand. 
The United States struck bushel (2150.4 cubic inches) is not 
adhered to in any type of box. The Western box contains 2173 
cubic inches. 

Bushel basket: This is a more inexpensive type of con- 
tainer which is very good for lower-priced fruit. Various 
makes and types of bushel baskets are available, including 



PACKING 



21 



those having flat bottoms, stitched-in bottoms, removable 
bottoms, etc. The so-called continuous-stave flat-bottom 
baskets are desirable. 

Paper and fiber cartons: There is no standard type of 
apple carton. Heavy paper or fiber board cartons vary in 
size from those which hold six apples to those which hold a 
bushel. Once the fruit is graded and sized these boxes may 
be easily packed. Through the use of decorative brands, 
colorful labels, and Cellophane tops they can be made very 
attractive (Fig. 6). 

Some of these cartons have not remained sealed well after 
packing, especially when held in cold storage. Under extreme 
conditions, such as the presence of excessive moisure, they have 
lost their shape. Recent improvements have remedied some 
of their defects so that they are satisfactory in dry storage. 

Hampers of various shapes and sizes are used for local 
trade, but have not met the requirements of the general 
market. 

(6) Determining Grades and Sizes to Be Made, Some of 
the factors under determining the type of package to use have 
a bearing on this question. "Grade^' refers to the exterior 
quality of the fruit, color, freedom from blemishes, firmness, 
and soundness. ^^Size^^ relates to the transverse diameter of 
the apple at its point of greatest circumference between stem 
and calyx. Size varies with the year and with the variety. 
A 2l^-inch Jonathan and a 3-inch Stayman may be equally 
high in grade. 

Many states now have grading and branding laws. The 
grower should become familiar with those of his own state. 
Federal grades are also in effect and are now being adopted by 
many states and by the apple trade. These grades are known 
as U. S. Fancy, U. S. No. 1, U. S. Commercial, U. S. Utility, 
U. S. Hail Grade, and Unclassified. They represent a de- 
cided advance over former trade grades and introduce an 
element of stability in the market that is of advantage to all. 
In the absence of mandatory acts the grower who is intent 



22 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 




{National Container Assn.) 



Fig. 6. These cartons make attractive packages and afford opportunity 

for advertising. 



PACKING 



23 



upon building a reputation as a dispenser of good fruit will 
wish to set high standards for himself. Many associations 
have rules and standards much higher than those of the fed- 
eral and state grades. 

Packing laws in some states require that closed packages 
must be labeled with the variety name, the name and address 
of the grower or packer, and the grade and minimum size of 
the fruit. This information must also be furnished when 
packing under the federal grades. 

The following are samples of markings, which should ap- 
pear on closed packages of apples grown in various states and 
packed for sale under some of the United States grades. 



Winchester, Va. 

This package contains 
108 2-in. apples 
Net weight ... lbs. 

At the present time only the most tender-skinned fruits are 
sized by hand. There are a number of types of power- 
operated machines which size apples very rapidly and ac- 
curately (Figs. 7 to 14 inclusive) . Uniformity in size as well 
as in other qualities plus quantity handling are now matters 
of prime importance. At present the tendency is to sort by 
means of mechanical devices into lots of several sizes with 

* If packages are marked by the manufacturer "U. S. Std. Bbl." or 
^'U. S. Std. Bu.'' such markings need not be made a part of stencil. 



Barrel: 

New York Apples 

U. S. Fancy 

Baldwin— 2%-in. Min. 

John Jones, Rochester, N. Y. 

U. S. Std. Bbl.* 



Ohio Apples 
U. S. No. 1 

Min. 2%-in. Rome Beauty 
John Jones, Canton, Ohio 
U. S. Std. Bbl.* 



Carton: 
Virginia Apples 
U. S. No. 1 
Stayman Winesap 
John Jones 



Bushel: 



Maryland— U. S. No. 1 
Delicious — Min. 2% in. 
John Jones, Frederick, Md. 
Std. Bu.* 



24 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



to 14-inch difference between them, all apples being of the 
same grade and all uniform in size within narrow limits in a 
given package. The finished package looks better, and the 
buyer knows what to expect and can make his calculations 
better. The selling price is therefore more satisfactory. 

The sizer should provide facilities at the hopper end for 
sorting the fruit for blemishes before passing it to the sizing 
section. Workers may remove defective specimens while the 
fruit is moving slowly on the conveyors en route to the vari- 
ous compartments. The sizing devices may be diverging belts 




{Geo. G. Bates) 



Fig. 7. A simple, but effective machine which both cleans and sizes the 
fruit. The cleaning device is a flexible bristle brush running over the 
top of the fruit. The sizing mechanism, the spiral rollers, directs the 
fruit to the various compartments. 

or spiral rollers, or rings or cups of varying sizes, dropping out 
the culls first, carrying the smaller sizes into side compart- 
ments and the largest size for which the machine is set to the 
end or the last compartment. The fruit is then packed from 
these compartments. 

Western boxed apples are graded as Extra Fancy, Fancy, 
or C grade. The size is denoted by the number of apples in 
the box. Extra Fancy calls for the highest measure of per- 
fection that can be attained commercially; Fancy allows for 
some tolerance as to color and slight imperfections; C grade 
takes fruit of less color and less perfect as to shape, etc., 
though still perfectly sound. 



PACKING 



25 




{Butler Mfg. eg Machinery Co.) 



Fig. 8. The sizing device here is a series of rubber cups which pass, 
from one row of cups to another, apples which are too large to fit, the 
largest apples going to the end bins, the smaller ones passing to the 
side compartments. All compartments holding fruit are equipped with 
sponge rubber pads. Capacity as shown here is 100 to 130 bushels 

per hour. 




(Butler Mfg. & Machinery Co.) 



Fig. 9. A unit of rollers attached to the hopper of the machine shown 
in Fig. 8 to permit thorough inspection of the fruit before reaching 
the sizing cups. The spirals are soft cord. Revolving slowly, the 
rollers turn the apples eight to ten times. 



26 HARVESTING, STORING. AND MARKETING 



Eastern growers are seeking to retain the Eastern box for 
only high-grade fruit, disposing of the less desirable grades 



r 




{The Trescott Oo., Inc.) 
Fig. 10. This grader is equipped with a detachable cleaning mechanism. 
Small apples are removed as they leave the hopper. The others pass 
through the cleaner, on to the elevator and the sizing device, a series 
of rings of varying sizes, and thence to the packing bins. 

in other ways. This is an effort that merits widespread 
support. 




{The Trescott Co., Inc.} 

Fig. 11. The machine shown in Fig. 10 in actual use in a Virginia 
packing house. Tender varieties should not be allowed to accumulate 



in such large quantities in the packing compartments. 

Two grades and a varying number of sizes are commonly 
made of apples packed in baskets. 

Table 3 gives the average grading records for a 5-year 



PACKING 



27 



period for certain individual growers selling through a Michi- 
gan cooperative shipping organization. 

Note the differences in run of crop between No. 13 and 
No. 25. Net prices to growers for bushel baskets during this 




{Niagara Sprayer & Chemical Oo.) 



Fig. 12. Another make of sizer equipped with a cleaning section just 
beyond the first sizing unit which removes the cider apples. Hopper 

in the foreground. 

period were: A grade $0.90; B grade $0.56; C grade $0.16. 

The causes of the poorer grades of fruit are indicated in 
Table 4, showing the percentages of specimens placed in B 
and C grades because of certain defects as between different 



28 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



{John Bean Mfg, Co.) 

Fig. 13. A cleaner and polisher consisting of a combination of brushes 
and cloth wipers attached to the sizing mechanism. The apples enter 

the cleaner at the kft. 




{Cutler Mfg. Go.) 

Fig. 14. A battery of rotary bin sizing machines, separating the apples 
according to weight. Each machine has forty-four bins, making pos- 
sible eleven separations for size in several grades from the standpoint 
of quality. At the lower left are two stands mounted on castors. The 
packers place their boxes on them, wheel them from bin to bin, wrap- 
ping each apple and placing it carefully but rapidly in the box. In the 
immediate foreground is a conveyor, the top section taking the packed 
boxes away, the lower section bringing the empty boxes back. Boxes 
are stamped with variety and grade designations and with the number 
of apples in the box. Lidding presses fasten the covers. Each machine 
has a capacity of 200 packed boxes per hour* 



PACKING 



29 



TABLE 3 

Apple Grading Record of Michigan Growers' 
Selling through a Cooperative* 



(Five- Year Period — ^in Percentages) 



Number 


A 


B 


C 


Canner 


Unclassi- . 
fied 


Bulk 


1 


57 


22 


9 


5 


6 


1 


13 


74 


13 


9 


0 


0 


4 


25 


24 


7 


10 


0 


0 


59 


28 


30 


30 


28 


3 


2 


7 


29 


22 


32 


41 


3 


0 


2 


70 


70 


17 


10 


1 


0 


2 



* V. R. Gardner, Proceedings, N. Y. State Horticultural Society, 1928. From 
Mich. Special Bui. 160, by H. P. Gaston. 



TABLE 4 



Causes of Low Grades of Apples* 



Variety 


Injury 


B Grade 


C Grade 


Grower 1 


Grower 2 


Grower 1 


Grower 2 






Percent 


Percent 


Percent 


Percent 


Mcintosh. . . . 


Scab 


70.3 


7.1 


60.6 


6.8 


King 


Stings 


45.5 


20.2 


28.3 


10.0 


N. Spy 


Bruises 


47.3 


14.4 


44.7 


8.4 




Limb rub 


58.7 


24.1 


73.7 


14.5 




Size 


94.4 


63.0 


90.3 


44.4 



* V. R. Gardner, Proceedings, N. Y. State Horticultural Society, 192^. From 
Mich. Special Bui. 160, by H. P. Gaston. 



30 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



growers and different varieties. For instance, of all the Mcin- 
tosh of Grower 1 that were placed in B grade, 70.3 per cent 
were so placed because of scab. Cull fruit adds greatly to 
packing costs and is worth nothing in itself. 

It is evident that most of the causes of off-grade fruit are 
preventable by better orchard practices and greater care in 
handling. Thinning, care in spraying and handling the fruit, 
proper fertilization of the soil, and adequate pruning all have 
their influence, 

(c) Determining Where Packing Is to Be Done. The 
grower may pack his fruit (1) in the orchard, (2) in his own 
packing house, or (3) in a community packing house. 

(1) Orchard packing was at one time the most common 
procedure in the East. The operation is subject to interruption 
by the weather; it is not possible to have as adequate facili- 
ties or those so conveniently arranged as in a stationary plant. 
It may not be feasible with the large quantities of fruit now 
grown by single individuals. 

Something can be said, however, under certain condi- 
tions for orchard packing. The emphasis now is on handling 
the fruit as little as possible. Some growers of Mcintosh 
have found it desirable to pack in the orchard directly from 
the containers which the pickers have deposited. They set 
up their boxes into which the fruit is to be packed on port- 
able tables of simple design between the tree rows (in the 
shade, if the sun is hot), size and grade the fruit by hand, 
place the packed boxes in the shade, and move along with 
the picking gang. The packed boxes are picked up by truck 
and taken to their destination. One or more units of this 
type may be set up. The procedure works well if properly 
organized. 

(2) Use of the grower^s packing house follows the present 
general tendency toward packing fruit in central plants rather 
than in the orchards. This is a practice long followed in the 
West. Work may thus go on in all kinds of weather if a 
supply of fruit is picked ahead for such emergencies. More 



PACKING 



31 



suitable packing equipment can be installed, including better 
packing tables and mechanical sizers, and the packages may 
be kept under cover at all times. With increasing competition 
from all sections, greater care in packing becomes absolutely 
essential. This factor, together with that of greater rapidity 
in grading, has stimulated the development of the packing 
house and the use of mechanical devices. 

(3) The community packing house is a further develop- 
ment. The grower may deliver his fruit and leave the grading 
and packing to be done there, at a certain charge, while he 
gives all his attention to harvesting the crop. This is the 
custom packing house, common in some sections. 

Packing houses, operated on a cooperative basis, are now 
found in many sections, including Nova Scotia, New York, 
Pennsylvania, and other Eastern states, as well as the Pacific 
Northwest. They make possible the packing of a large quan- 
tity of fruit of a certain standard, which greatly facilitates its 
marketing. They allow the individual grower to confine his 
attention to getting the crop off the trees in good season and to 
the packing house in good condition. They make possible 
the growing of a larger quantity of fruit by the individual 
because he does not have to concern himself with the packing. 

These community houses may be federated into a central 
organization which undertakes to handle the marketing, to 
purchase supplies, etc. 

How a Cooperative Packing House Operates. Though there are vari- 
ations in methods, a typical packing house operates as follows : The fruit 
is delivered tree-run at the packing house by the grower. Containers 
are stamped with the grower's number, and a receipt is issued to the 
grower giving the number of the containers and the varieties delivered 
by him. The fruit is graded and sized into %- or ^/^-inch sizes, and 
packed, each grower's fruit being run separately. The number of pack- 
ages of the various grades and sizes and the number of pounds of culls 
are entered on the association's books, after which the fruit frequently 
loses its identity from the grower's standpoint. 

In some places, instead of grading all the fruit of an individual 
grower separately, a few sample bushels are graded by hand from each 



32 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



load which he brings in. The balance of the load is estimated according 
to the findings of the sample. This avoids running small lots through 
the sizers, recording them, and clearing the machines before starting 
with a different lot, thus saving considerable time and increasing the 
output of the packing crew. 

Returns are usually made on the pool basis, a pool extending 
through all or part of the season, being made for each variety, grade, and 
size. A grower receives the net price after packing charges are deducted, 
constituting the average price for the pooling period for the variety, 
grade, and size in question. The accounts cannot be completely cleaned 
up until the season is over, but advances are made to the grower in the 
meantime, only a small balance remaining at the 'close of the season. 

Instead of pooling the fruit, that owned by each grower may be sold 
separately and returns made on his own product. 

Although the packed fruit is usually sold by the association, it may 
be sold by the grower. In any event he pays all the costs. Packing 
costs are determined by taking the total cost of labor, supplies, depre- 
ciation of buildings and equipment, insurance, and interest on invest- 
ment, and prorating them on the basis of the quantity of fruit brought 
to the packing house by each, grower. The charge is thus made against 
unpacked rather than packed fruit. This is fair, since packing costs are 
as high on 100 bushels of tree-run fruit which sort out 50 bushels of 
culls and low-grade fmit, as on 100 bushels which pack up 70 bushels or 
more of high-grade fruit. This plan also stimulates the growing of 
good fruit and the keeping of poor stuff away from the packing house. 

It is evident that volume is a very essential factor for successful 
•cooperative effort. Packing costs decrease very rapidly in every detail 
with increase in volume. 

Requirements for a Good Packing House, Such a packing 
house should have adequate facilities for receiving fruit 
without keeping the drivers waiting to unload, and for ac- 
cumulating a reasonable supply to pack when the weather 
prevents hauling. It must be well lighted over the sizers 
and packing tables and efficiently arranged for handling the 
fruit. Conveyors should be installed for carrying culls out 
of the way, for transporting empty packages, and for moving 
the packed fruit. Storage space should be provided for at 
least part of the season's supply of packages and for holding 
the packed fruit until a carload is ready, unless the fruit 



PACKING 



33 



can be loaded immediately into cars standing on a side track 
or can go to cold storage by truck. 

A loft for empty packages and supplies, a well-lighted first 
floor for the packing operation, and a basement for the packed 
fruit make a good arrangement. Such a house would need to 
be built on a slope so that the first floor and basement might 
both be at ground level. Ventilation in the fruit room is im- 
portant. Instead of storing packages in a loft, some growers 
prefer to store them in an adjoining building, and through 
the use of skylights make more light available to the packing 
floor (Fig. 15). 

Floor plans of desirable houses for barrel and box packing 
may be obtained from the United States Department of Agri- 
culture. 

(d) Grading. In grading U. S. No. 1 fruit, whether by 
hand or machine, discard all apples showing limb rubs, spray 
burn, sun scald, russeting, hail, visible water core, disease, or 
insect or mechanical injuries, and fruit which is overripe 
or out of condition. A small proportion of these defects is 
allowable, but some fruit possessing them will remain even 
though the operator removes all that he can find. He should 
seek to pack well above the minimum grade standards. Han- 
dle the fruit with the greatest care. Do not press or drop it. 

Be familiar with the grade requirements (see General In- 
formation at the close of this chapter) as to color and size. 
Keep sample specimens in view until proficiency is attained. 
Use both hands, and strive constantly for greater speed and 
accuracy. Look at the apples as they lie on the table. Pick 
them up in such manner that as the wrists turn the undisclosed 
portions of the fruit come into view. Most mechanical sizers 
turn the fruit on the rolls or belts to afford opportunity for 
thorough inspection — an opportunity which is often neglected. 

{e) Packing in Barrels. Inasmuch as very little fruit is 
now packed in barrels and that almost entirely for export, the 
subject is treated under General Information at the close of 
this chapter. 



34 



HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



(/) Packing in Western Boxes. The box has become the 
standard package for apples. In the West and in British 
Columbia it has been the universal package for many years. 




Fig. 15. (a) A western New York community packing house. The fruit 
is received at the left, packed through the house, and loaded on a railroad 
siding at the right. Two doors for unloading or for removing culls are 
available around the left corner. The lighting arrangement for packing 
is very poor, (b) This is a Marjdand packing house. The packed fruit 
goes onto cars at a lower level on the right. The lighting is excellent. 
A storage for packages is just out of the picture on the left. 

A large measure of attention to individual trees reduces 
to a minimum the proportion of fruit that is medium or below 
in size, color and perfection, and increases correspondingly the 
proportion of high-grade fruit. This does not mean that culls 



PACKING 



35 



are unknown in good fruit regions. The disposal of fruit too 
poor to box is one of the serious problems confronting the box 
apple territory. 

(1) Grading the Fruit: The fruit must be very carefully 
graded as to size, shape, and color, fruit blemished by insect or 
disease being discarded as required by the grade terms. Defi- 
nite styles and types of packs based on long experience have 
been worked out. The trade desires to know the number of 
apples in each box. 

Standard numbers have been determined for apples of a 
certain size, packed according to a certain style. It is there- 
fore evident that there must be little variation in size between 
the individual apples. 

Mechanical devices are used very extensively for sizing, 
though much fruit is still graded by hand. The machines per- 
form the work more quickly but unless operated with great 
care may injure the fruit more than hand sizing by experi- 
enced workers. Machines should provide ample space for 
removing inferior fruit before the sizing mechanism is reached. 

(2) Supplies and Accessories: Specifications for the box 
have already been given in connection with ^'Determining the 
package to use.^' 

A bench upon which to make the boxes, with nail box, auto- 
matic nail stripper to enable the workman to get hold of the 
nails, and a box hatchet, will be needed. For the wrapping 
paper, a hod that clips to the box or packing stand is necessary. 
A clip under spring tension will hold the paper in place and re- 
lease one sheet at a time. 

Nails — Four- or five-penny, cement coated or waxed, 8 nails for each side, 
bottom and top, 32 nails to the box. 

Cleats — Used on each end of top and bottom. Drive through cleats when 
nailing top and bottom. Soak cleats if inclined to split. 

Lining paper — ^Used for all except poorer grades of fruit. Blue for Extra 
Fancy, pink for Fancy, white for C grade, of 23-pound news grade 
or 20-pound sulfide, two pieces per box, each piece 17% by 26 
inches. Put in the pieces, so as to overlap on bottom with a slight 



36 



HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 




(77. D.A.) 



Fig. 16. There are several satisfactory ways in which to wrap an apple. 
This shows the various steps employed in one method. 



PACKING 



37 



fold along bottom edges to afford slack which will be taken up when 
the cover is put on, without tearing the paper. After the box is 
packed, the top edges are folded across each other. 




(Z7. /S. D.A.) 

Fig. 17. Wrapping an apple, continued from Fig. 16. 



Wrapping paper — Paper now commonly used is 12- or 14-pound glazed 
on surface away from fruit. Wrapped apples pack more easily 
than unwrapped, are protected from injurj^ and decay, ai^d give evi- 



38 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



dence of care in preparing the package for market. The size of the 
paper varies with the size of the fruit. Wraps for the largest apples 
are 12 by 12 or 14 by 14 inches; for apples running 64 to 80 to the 
box, 11 by 11 inches; 88 to 113, 10 by 10 inches; 125 to 180, 9 by 9 
inches, for smaller sizes 8 by 8 inches, though such sizes are some- 
times packed without wrappers. The wraps may be stamped with 
the brand or trade mark. Oiled wraps are largely used for varieties 
that are to be stored, as indicated under "Storage Scald.'' 

Stamps — After the fruit is packed, the name of the variety, the grade, the 
number of apples in the box, and the minimum net weight are 
stamped in purple ink on the end of the box above the label. 
Assorted stamps will be needed for these purposes. Stamping 
machines that ink themselves are used in some packing houses. 

Labels — of different colors depending on the grade of the fruit are com- 
monly used. Blue for Extra Fancy, pink for Fancy, and white for 
C grade are standard colors. These labels have been worked out 
in simple and attractive designs and combinations. They are pasted 
on the ends of the box, and are of such size as to leave about a 
%-inch space at the top for the stamping. A high grade of paste 
is used. As a matter of economy, many labels are now put on 
before the boxes are made up. 

(3) Wrapping the Apple: No two persons wrap an apple in 
exactly the same manner. It should be kept in mind that, since 
the whole process has to occur with every apple packed, it is 
vital that every unnecessary motion be eliminated. This calls 
for much practice and precision. When the operation is com- 
pleted, the loose ends of the paper should be folded neatly 
under the apple as it lies in the box. See Figs. 16 and 17. 

The diagonal pack (Fig. 18) is commonly used, because it 
is easier to pack, the fruit fits snugly together, the finished pack 
remains tight longer, and there is less danger of bruising. In 
this style of pack the apples are always placed in spaces be- 
tween apples rather than directly over or against them. It 
will be found possible by packing the fruit either on the side 
or end to use the diagonal pack in nearly all cases. The 2-2 or 
3-2 diagonal packs will take most commercial sizes of fruit. 
The largest sizes may have to be packed 2-1, and the small 
sizes 3-3. Diagrams in Farmers^ Bulletin 1457 illustrate types 



PACKING 



39 



of packs, number of layers and of apples in a layer, and the 
number of apples in the packed box. 



HOW TO START 
A 2-1 PACK 




HOW TO START 
A 2-2 PACK 



HOW TO START 
A 3-2 PACK 



HOW TO START 
A 3-3 PACK 



Pig. 18. The diagonal pack adapted to apples of varying sizes. 

Start the pack against the lower end of the box nearest the 
packer, the box being tilted so that the fruit will remain in 




{V. S.D. A.) 

Fig. 19. The upper box illustrates correct height and bulge ; the center 
box is packed too high; the lower box too low. 



place. Great importance attaches to getting the initial layer 
in place correctly with no free space between the last apples 



40 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



and the end of the box. The medium and small sizes may 
be tightened in the layers considerably by pulling the layer 
toward the packer, from time to time in the packing process. 
The larger sizes should fit well, but should not be tightened 
much as the bulge in the finished box may be too high. 




(77. S. D.A.) 



Fig. 20. A desirable arrangement for nailing the covers on boxes. The 
press is simple and easily operated from the foot pedal. The boxes to be 
covered come to the press on a conveyor at the right, and after nailing 
are set on the conveyor at the left. 

Carry each layer through to completion before starting 
another. The packer will need to make adjustments and selec- 
tion so as to have the fruit about i/^ inch above the ends of the 
box and about 1 inch above the sides at the center when the 
pack is completed (Fig. 18). The bulge should be gradual 



PACKING 



41 



and uniform with no sags or low apples, reaching its highest 
point at the center, so that when the cover is nailed the pack- 
age will be springy and tight. With most varieties it will help 
to secure the proper bulge if the packer places the apples in 
each row and each layer that are adjacent to the ends of the 
box on end rather than on the cheek, so that their diameters 
build up the height of the pack less than do the apples in the 
center. 

In addition to nailing the cover, boxes intended for export 
should be wired at the ends. 

ig) Packing in Eastern Boxes. As a rule the fruit in the 
Eastern box is not wrapped. The apples are placed in the 
box by; hand, the box is shaken several times to settle the fruit, 
the top layer is made as orderly as possible, care being taken 
not to elevate the fruit above the ends of the box. A colored 
paper cover is placed over the fruit and nailed in place by 
slats across the ends. The boxes may then be piled on trucks 
or in storage without damage to the fruit. 

It is well to use oiled paper if the fruit is to be put into 
storage, as indicated under Storage Scald, page 66. 

In packing the box, facers are sometimes used on the top 
of the box. By attaching the facer first, turning the box up- 
side down, packing the first layer, filling the box without 
placing the fruit in layers, nailing on the bottom, inverting the 
box, and removing the facer, it is possible to have a very good- 
looking pack with a minimum amount of labor. The use of 
a cardboard cover instead of the facer makes a very solid 
package. This cover is nailed in place by two narrow slats 
and then the box is filled in exactly the same manner as when 
an ordinary facer is used. 

A successful grower of fine apples in the Hudson Valley 
section of New York gives these directions for packing the 
box: 

In the construction of the box, omit the nailing of the bottom but 
instead nail the two slats on the top. Invert the box ready to face 
and fill Place a corrugated paper sheet, 14 by 16% inches on the slats, 



42 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



then two pieces of a heavy tough crepe paper, blue in color, or a heavy- 
white wax paper on the corrugated sheet. Place the paper so that it can 
be folded over the sides, leaving enough margin so that when the box is 
filled the paper can be brought back over the fruit before the bottom is 
nailed on. Thus the box is lined top, bottom, and sides but not on 
the ends. 




{New England Box Oo.) 



Fig. 21. Types of apple boxes used for Eastern apples. The box in the 
center foreground is standard. It has, however, been packed a little too 
full. When the paper cover has been placed on the fruit, and the slats 
nailed in place, it should be possible to pile the boxes without bruising 

the fruit. 

The second part in the process is the facing. The fruit used is as 
uniform as to size and color as the grade will permit. The cheek pack 
is used, keeping the color side up, and the fruit is packed as tightly as is 
possible without bruising. 

As fast as graded, place the fruit on the face, being careful to bring 
the fill up level, although not placing the fruit in exact layers. When the 
box is full, slightly above the ends, fold the paper over the fruit and 



PACKING 



43 



put the bottom board in place. With each hand hold the bottom and 
slightly shake the box settling the board in place. Nail the bottom, 
turn the box, and the job is done. Pack this box good and tight but 
with no bulge whatsoever. 

The Eastern box is not intended 
to duplicate the one used in West- 
ern sections. It is designed to pro- 
Tide a convenient and attractive 
package of fine fruit at a minimum 
of cost, the saving being made not 
in quality of the fruit but in labor. 
It is growing rapidly in popular- 
ity. It does need further stand- 
ardization. 

{h) Packing in Baskets. A 
good way to pack a basket of 
apples is to prepare the face first 
on a metal plate or device which 
holds the fruit in place (Figs. 22 and 23). When the face is 
completed, slip over it a metal follower inside of which is a 
heavy paper liner of the same depth and circumference as the 




Tig, 23. At the right is the facer; in the center 

is the metal sleeve which sets on the facer and is 
run full of fruit; at the left is the paper liner 
used inside the metal sleeve and remaining 
about the fruit when the sleeve is removed. 



interior of the basket. Run this liner full of the apples. Re- 
move the metal follower. Slip the basket top down over the 
fruit until the edges of the basket are pressed against the metal 




Fig. 22. Placing the apples 
in the facer for packing in 
baskets. Some facers are 
furrowed or corrugated to 
keep the rings of fruit in 
place; see Fig. 23. 



44 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



plate holding the face. Turn the basket over, release the facing 
device, and put the cover on the basket. 

The whole operation may be performed very quickly. In 
large establishments, workers place the facers and send them 
along on conveyors to others who place the followers and 
fill the baskets. Alechanical devices for reversing the baskets 
after they are filled hasten the operation and save hand labor 
(Fig. 24) . 




Fig. 24. The various steps involved in packing a basket and preparing to 
attach the cover. Several types of basket turners are available. The 
fruit is brought to the turner as indicated at c. Note tha paper cap at /. 



Facers on their cheeks and in concentric rings make a very 
attractive package. Use a corrugated paper pad under the 
cover. The finished basket should have sufficient bulge or 
spring to the cover to hold the fruit firmly in place and to 
constitute a full pack when it reaches the market (Figs. 25 
and 26) . 

[i) Removing Spray Residues. In sections where heavy 
applications of arsenicals must be made for the codling moth, 



PACKING 




{N. Y. State College of Agr,} 
Fig. 25. A well-faced basket. The fruit ia 
higher at the center than at the edges of the 



basket, insuring a light, springy pack. 




Fig. 26. Note the strong well-made covers, 
the bulge of the covers making a tight pack, 
and the trade brand inserted in each basket. 



46 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



especially if these are made late in the season, a considerable 
residue of arsenic and lead remains on the fruit at harvest 
time. Authentic cases of illness from eating fruit carrying 
these residues are difficult to find. Nevertheless, it is to the 
advantage of the grower to have his fruit as free as possible 
from such residues and to find substitute spray materials 
which are effective but of a non-poisonous nature. The present 
regulations of the Federal Food and Drug Administration do 
not permit more than 0.025 grain of arsenic trioxide, 0.05 
grain of lead, or 0.02 grain of fluorine per pound of fruit. 
Certificates indicating amounts of residues are now issued by 
regulating agencies in the various states. Notices sent to 
growers take the following form: • 

STATE OF NEW YORK 
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND MARKETS 

HoLTON V. NoYEs, Commissioner 

ALBANY 

WESTERN DIVISION 

STATE OFFICE BUILDING, BUFFALO, N. Y. 

Leon D. Spink February 6th, 1940 

District Supervisor 

H. B. Knapp 
Farming dale 
Long Island, New York 

Dear Sir: 

This is to advise that sample A'404^6 taken on February 5th 
from 400 bushels of Mcintosh apples owned by you and stored 
in the Savannah Cold Storage has been found to contain .OO4, 
grains of arsenic and .009 grains of lead per pound. 

Certificate No. 8355 covering this lot of apples has been mailed 
to the Savannah Cold Storage. 

Very truly yours, 
{Signed) L. D. Spink 
District Supervisor 



PACKING 



47 



Intensive efforts and investigations have been under way 
for several years to devise solutions for the problem within 
the financial means of the grower and not harmful to the fruit. 
Further developments should be watched with interest in those 
sections where spray residues constitute a serious problem. 

It has been established that dry wiping, whether by hand 
or machine with brushes or otherwise, is not effective in remov- 
ing more than one-third of the residue, even under the best 
conditions. Considerable mechanical injury results, and the 
residues in the blossom and stem ends cannot be removed in 
this manner. 




(John Bean Mfg. Co.) 
Fig. 27. A fruit washer (right) connected with the sizer. 



The most satisfactory method developed to date is to treat 
the fruit (apples and pears) with a bath of dilute hydro- 
chloric acid. Machines have been developed for this purpose 
(Fig. 27), including satisfactory home-made machines. 

One type of machine sprays the fruit with diffused jets of 
the solution as it passes through the spray chamber, rinsing the 
fruit later with clear water and drying it with a forced draft 
of air. A second type floats the fruit directly through the 
solution, spraying the fruit from nozzles at the same time, 
rinsing and drying later. Other types are in use. 

The commercial machines may be too expensive for the 
small grower. Some home-made machines costing not more 



48 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



than $100 have proved satisfactory. One of the best of these 
consists of a tank equipped with paddles which both propel the 
fruit and immerse it slightly. This device is not satisfactory 
for pears since most varieties sink to the bottom of the tank. 
A better device for pears is a belt conveyor which carries the 
fruit along, partly immersed in the solution. 

It has been possible to remove as high as 90 per cent of 
residue under commercial conditions. 

Efficiency of the treatment is increased by increasing the 
strength of the acid, increasing the time of exposure, and 
especially by raising the temperature of the solution. Varie- 
ties with oily skins are most difficult to clean. Best results are 
secured by treating soon after picking. 

Residues of lime, copper, lead, etc., are removed at the 
same time. Very slight detrimental effects on appearance or 
keeping quality have occurred on sound fruit when the op- 
eration is properly performed. Some varieties have calyx 
tubes extending well down to the core of the apple. In the 
machines submerging the fruit, it has not been possible to 
remove the cleaning solution from these tubes, and some dam- 
age to the tissues, sometimes followed by decay, has resulted. 

Careless cleaning methods may result in arsenical injury 
at calyx or stem, or hydrochloric acid burning, or chemical 
injury at the core. Any of these injuries may result in storage 
rots. All decayed fruit should be kept out of the cleaning 
equipment. 

The commercial grade of acid testing 20 degrees Baume is 
satisfactory, 3 gallons in 100 gallons of water making approxi- 
mately a 1 percent solution, by weight. Solutions containing 
about % of 1 percent are commonly used except in aggravated 
cases. The strength of the acid bath should be maintained by 
additions of acid from time to time. Clean the acid tank com- 
pletely each day to prevent the accumulation of soluble 
arsenic. 

Rinsing is very important in preventing injury to the keep- 
ing quality of the fruit. Two to 3 gallons of fresh water 



PACKING 49 

should be used for each bushel of fruit treated. If the 
supply of water is limited, the same water may be used re- 
peatedly, provided that sufficient lime is added to neutralize 
the acid. 




(Broffdex Co.) 

Fig. 28. A waxing outfit. The curved metal shield directs a sheet of 
wax over the revolving fruit. The machine has a capacity of 300 

bushels per hour. 



Complete drying of the fruit does not seem to be necessary. 

Alkaline washes have been used and experimental work 
done with the application of paraffin and oil following the 
treatment, to replace the natural wax removed in the process. 
Wax emulsions, diluted with water, are used to advantage if 



50 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



the fruit is to be stored for any length of time (Figs. 28 
and 29). Developments in this field may well be watched 
closely. 

3. Determining Harvesting and Marketing Costs. The 
cost of picking apples depends upon the topography of the 
ground, the size of the trees, the variety, the yield, the cost 




(Brogdex Co. 



Fig. 29. The apples at the right were waxed before going into cold 
storage. The others of the same weight and variety from the same 
grower were not. The photo was taken after ten days at room tem- 
perature. The loss in weight is about 1% pounds per bushel. 

of labor, the efficiency of equipment, and whether picking is 
done by the box or by the day. 

The cost of hauling to storage, grading, packing, stor- 
ing, and marketing depends on so many factors that avail- 
able figures, though specific for one instance, are merely 
approximations for general orchard conditions. 

Harvesting and packing in a 20-acre orchard of repre- 
sentative varieties and various ages on hilly land in Ohio cost 
18 cents per bushel. Packages, trucking, and storage for the 



STORING 



51 



season cost 24 cents per bushel over a 13-year period. Over a 
period of 5 years, on a lot of 15,000 bushels from an orchard 
in the same state, it has cost 10.33 cents for picking alone; 
3.48 cents per bushel for hauling apples from orchard to the 
packing house; 5.92 cents for grading and packing the fruit, 
exclusive of wages of the foreman of the crew. In the Hudson 
Velley of New York State, for the crop of 1931 it cost 217 
growers who operated 509 apple orchards an average of 10 
cents a bushel for picking, 7 cents a bushel for packing, and 
8 cents a bushel for hauling and marketing. The price of labor 
for these 509 orchards varied, some growers paying by the day 
and some by the box. See also Table 43, page 354, and 
Table 45, page 427. 

4. Storing. Storage plays an important part in the fruit 
world. Were it not for the development of storage and re- 
frigeration systems whereby fruit may be held for extended 
periods, the different varieties and kinds would be avail- 
able only through their periods of production. Movement 
to market would of necessity take place immediately. Stor- 
age extends the season and tends to make the supply uniform 
throughout the season. It stabilizes both supply and prices. 
This has its advantages from both the producing and the con- 
suming standpoints. 

Factors and Procedure: 

(a) Determining advisability of storing. 

(b) Forms of storage. 

(c) Determining whether to buy storage space or to build. 

(d) Factors for successful common storage. 

(e) Determining the type of common storage to build. 
(/) Operating the storage plant. 

(g) Picking and packing fruit for storage. 

(a) Determining Advisability of Storing. It is evident that 
some fruit must be stored each year if prices are to be satisfac- 
tory. It cannot all be forced on the market in the fall months. 



52 HARVESTING, STORIXG, AND MARKETING 



TABLE 5 

Apples: Cold Storage Holdings by Month in Terms 
OF Barrels, Boxes and Bushels 
1934-35 — 1938-39 



Barrels 



Season 


Oct. 1 


Nov. 1 


Dec. 1 


Jan. 1 


Feb. 1 


Mar. 1 


Apr. 1 


May 1 


Jiine 1 




1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 




barrels 


barrels 


barrels 


barrels 


barrels 


barrels 


barrels 


barrels 


barrels 


1934-35 


209 


872 


797 


678 


506 


338 


172 


68 


17 


1935-36 


320 


979 


950 


789 


687 


435 


205 


86 


22 


1936-37 


66 


313 


307 


233 


176 


121 


42 


15 


3 


1937-38 


135 


501 


483 


411 


322 


218 


83 


32 


13 


1938-39 


177 


383 


320 


221 


149 


81 


26 


9 


5 ' 


Bushel Baskets and Eastern Boxes 


1934-35 


3,370 


10,858 


10,555 


8,922 


6,937 


5,084 


3,225 


1,557 


468 


1935-36 


3,307 


12,607 


12,814 


11,489 


9,820 


7,250 


4,640 


2,146 


857 


1936-37 


3,904 


11,763 


11,641 


9,795 


7,631 


5,021 


2,654 


1,226 


479 


1937-38 


5,421 


17,653 


18,727 


16,819 


14,356 


10,917 


6,983 


3,365 


1,134 


1938^39 


6.754 


16,234 


15,051 


12,866 


10,006 


7,200 


4,089 


2,082 


756 


Boxes 


Season 


Oct. 1 


Nov. 1 


Dec. 1 


Jan. 1 


Feb. 1 


Mar. 1 


Apr. 1 


May 1 


June 1 




1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 




hexes 


boxes 


boxes 


boxes 


boxes 


boxes 


boxes 


boxes 


boxes 


1934-35 


8,279 


17,750 


18,037 


15,713 


12,329 


7,839 


4,185 


1,804 


562 


1935-36 


3,263 


15,283 


17,390 


15,201 


12,944 


9,374 


6,052 


2,946 


1,074 


1936-37 


3,339 


12,743 


13,924 


11,863 


9,201 


6,809 


4,580 


2,258 


899 


1937-38 


1,612 


12,264 


15,878 


13,952 


10,958 


7,969 


4,807 


2,318 


796 


1938-39 


1,394 


12,887 


14,804 


13,037 


10,520 


7,959 


4,972 


.2,598 

1 


896 



Total 





1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 




bushels 


bushels 


bushels 


bushels 


bushels 


bushels 


bushels 


bushels 


bushels 


1934-35 


12,276 


31,224 


30,983 


26,670 


20,784 


13,938 


7,926 


3,564 


1,080 


1935-36 


7,530 


30,828 


33,054 


29,058 


24,675 


17,928 


11,307 


5,349 


1,997 


1936-37 


7,441 


25,445 


26,486 


22,357 


17,360 


12,193 


7,360 


3,529 


1,387 


1937-38 


7,438 


31,420 


36,054 


32,004 


26,280 


19,540 


12,039 


5,779 


1,969 


1938-39 


8,679 


30,270 


30,815 


26,566 


20,973 


15,402 


9,192 


4,707 


1,667 


Average 


8,673 


29,838 


31,479 


27,331 


20,015 


15,801 


9,565 


4,586 


1,620 



STORING 



53 



Table 5 indicates that apples are available from cold storage 
throughout nine months of the year and gives an idea of the 
enormous extent of the storage business. November to March 
is the period of heaviest holdings. 

The normal market for fresh apples from commercial fruit 
sections (the ^^commercial crop^' of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture) in the United States is about 75 million 
bushels. In other words, this quantity may be marketed over 
the season at fairly satisfactory prices. Under normal condi- 
tions export markets take about 10 million bushels (not in war 
times when major European powers are involved). Thus 
there is ordinarily a satisfactory outlet in prospect for about 
85 million bushels. When the crop exceeds this figure and 
prices in the fall are low, it may be well to remember that they 
may be lower later with storage costs added to the grower's 
investment. 

Many growers make a practice of storing a certain propor- 
tion of their crops each year. They do this on the assump- 
tion that it is quite as risky to store the entire crop as it is 
to sell all of it at harvest time, that a combination of the two 
procedures gives stability to the situation. On the whole, this 
is probably sound reasoning. Two exceptions to it may be 
made: first, that the financial pressure may be so great as to 
compel disposal of the crop at a given time; and, second, that 
whenever prices are satisfactory it is a good time to sell, re- 
gardless of other factors. 

Conditions in a single section do not provide sufficient data 
on which to base action. Study the national situation from 
the best sources obtainable, including the reports of the United 
States Bureau of Agricultural Economics as to volume of 
crop and storage holdings. Study also the general economic 
situation, including probable foreign demand. 

Studies made in New York State which are probably ap- 
plicable elsewhere indicate that the two factors which exer- 
cise the greatest influence on the farm price of apples are (1) 
the purchasing power of consumers and (2) the production 



54 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



of apples in Eastern United States. Therefore, the index of 
factory payrolls issued by the United States Department of 
Commerce and the estimates of the Crop Reporting Board 
should be watched. 

The volume of citrus fruit production seems to have much 
less influence than has been claimed. 

It is evident that only the best grades of fruit represent 
good storage risks under normal conditions. 

(6) Forms of Storage. The simplest form of storage is 
that used by every farmer and by many a townsman, the 
family cellar. The special common storage cellar or house 
is a step further. Beyond this point are systems of cold stor- 
age through the use of ice or by means of mechanical and 
electrical refrigeration. 

Common storage answers a universal need. For its ef- 
fectiveness it depends upon the control of the natural factors 
of temperature, ventilation, and humidity. From the com- 
mercial standpoint common storage is of importance in the 
northern half of the United States where natural tempera- 
tures range low enough to make it feasible. In much of the 
Canadian apple belt and in some sections of the United States, 
the weather is sharply cool, especially at night, before the 
fruit is ready to pick. 

^^CoW storage, as it is termed, is provided through the use 
of ice or ice and salt, or by a mechanical process which de- 
pends on the compression followed by the expansion of gas or 
vapor. As gas expands it takes up heat from its surround- 
ings, lowering the temperature of a brine pumped through 
pipes to the storage room. The material, having expanded 
into its gaseous form, is condensed and returned to the com- 
pressor to be used over again. Another method known as 
the absorption system but not differing in final results is also 
used. Ammonia gas is the material commonly employed. 

Very lov. temperatures are secured by mechanical refriger- 
ation. Delicate and intricate devices control the tempera- 
ture and humidity relations. A detailed discussion of cold 



STORING 



55 



storage cannot be included here, but adequate references are 
provided in the bibliography for those seeking further infor- 
mation. 

Cold-storage plants form a very important link in our 
marketing machinery. They are located both in large pro- 
ducing centers and at consuming markets. Box apples are 
shipped East and held in them until put on the market. These 
plants run from 40,000 to 50,000 barrels capacity, or more. 




I {N. Y. o. B. B. Oo.) 

Fig. 30. A modern cold-storage plant in a producing section, with re- 
frigerator cars on the switch for loading. 



A storage plant at Winchester, Va., said to be the largest in 
the world, has a capacity of 300,000 barrels. 

Some growers have cold-storage facilities of their own 
sufficient to meet their needs as indicated under (c). 

(c) Determining Whether to Buy Storage Space or to 
Build. In many sections common storage, if properly con- 
structed and operated, will care for the crop until it can be 
sent to market. Some commercial common storage houses are 
found which will rent space, but they are the exception. As a 
rule, the grower must provide his own. 



56 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



Ordinarily the grower cannot have a private cold-storage 
plant because machinery and equipment are expensive and 
the size of the business will not warrant the outlay. The 
construction costs run from 75 cents to $4.00 per bushel capac- 
ity, for plants including buildings and equipment, with higher 
figures in a few cases. The commercial storage charge is by 
the month or by the season, prices varying with general con- 
ditions but approaching 30 cents for the first month for barrels, 
and 10 to 15 cents per month thereafter, or about 55 to 65 
cents for the season to April 1. The charges at the terminals of 
large cities are usually greater. Rates on boxes are from 
15 to 20 cents and on bushel baskets about 25 cents for the 
season. Fruit may be held later than April 1 at a small addi- 
tional charge. 

Products other than apples are also stored in these houses. 
Packing rooms are commonly provided in conjunction with 
storages at producing points, and some such plants are co- 
operatively owned by growers in the sections tributary to these 
shipping points. 

Growers near markets and those operating roadside stands 
on a large scale are developing small cold-storage plants of 
their own, especially in Eastern New York, New Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania, and other Northeastern states. These plants hold 
from 10,000 to 50,000 bushels. They make possible a con- 
tinuous supply of high-grade fruit in excellent condition, be- 
ginning with the early fruits and extending through the apple 
season. The fruit is often stored in open packages, as crates 
or boxes, to avoid pressing. This makes an excellent way 
to handle the tender dessert varieties. 

The plants may be used to store the fruit at harvest, pack- 
ing it out after picking is completed. Sometimes old build- 
ings are remodeled. Building and equipment costs have run 
from 65 to 85 cents or more per bushel ; operating costs, from 
10 to 12 cents from September 1 to April 1. Volume makes a 
great difference in these costs. Advice should be obtained 



STORING 



57 



from competent refrigeration engineers as to plans and equip- 
ment. 

Under ordinary circumstances, if cold-storage space is 
available to the grower, it is probable that he might better 
rent his requirements than construct his own plant. With 
his own plant some of his costs go on every year, whether he 




Fig. 31. This is a grower-owned packing house and cold storage in the 
Hudson Valley Section of New York. The wing at the left is the packing 
house, remodeled from a farm building. More light would be desirable. 
At the right and connected with the packing house is the cold storage 
with a capacity of 10,800 bushels. The storage cost is about $1.00 per 
bushel, not including some of the owner's labor, of which there is no 
record. Operating costs average 13 to 15 cents per bushel for a period 
extending from about Sept. 1 to June 1. Apples are put in the storage 
when picked and are packed out at the grower's convenience. Much of 
the fruit is sold at the door and hauled by motor truck. 

uses the space or not. He may, of course, send his crop to the 
terminal market storages, but it is questionable whether all 
his holdings should be tied up at definite consuming points, 
with their higher costs. 

(d) Factors for Successful Common Storage. Ventilation, 
humidity, and temperature are the three factors of most im- 
portance in keeping the fruit. Of these, ventilation appears 



58 HAIl\^STING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



to be of major importance. The air must change rapidly if the 
fruit is to keep well. For this reason as well as because they 
are convenient to handle, and rigid enough to protect the 
fruit, slat crates and lug boxes have been found to be very 
satisfactory containers. 

The reason that artificial cold storages are operated suc- 
cessfully without ventilation is that the temperature is re- 
duced so low that life activities in the fruit are practically at 
a standstill. 

The humidity, or the moisture content of the air, should 
be high to prevent wilting and shrinking. It should range 
from 85 to 95 percent. It can be determined by means of the 
hygrometer. Earth floors, or concrete floors sprinkled with 
water, aid materially in maintaining proper humidity. 

The uniformity of the temperature seems more important 
in common storage than the exact thermometer reading. With 
good ventilation and the proper humidity, a common storage 
temperature between 40*^ and 50° F., provided the tempera- 
ture does not fluctuate violently, has been found to keep 
apples in good condition for comparatively long periods. 

(e) Determining the Type of Common Storage to Build. 
The storage may be above or below ground. The type in most 
common use thus far has been the cellar or below-ground 
storage. The assumption has been that temperature was the 
main factor to control and that the danger of freezing would 
be slight in a cellar storage. It is now recognized that venti- 
lation is of great importance in the common storage where 
the temperature is not low enough to check life processes of 
the fruit. It can probably be provided more satisfactorily 
and in a more dependable form in the above-ground storage. 
By proper insulation the storage above ground may be pro- 
tected from freezing. Construction costs do not differ mate- 
rially between the two types, running usually from 40 to 75 
cents per bushel, depending upon the capacity, building ma- 
terials, and labor costs. Barns and various farm buildings 
may often be converted into satisfactory storage plants. 



60 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



Cellar storages are commonly constructed in a bank with 
access on the exposed ends, or at one side (Fig. 32) . The walls 
may be of stone, concrete, brick, hollow tile, etc. Such walls, 
especially where exposed, may be further insulated with hair, 
felt, granulated cork, sawdust, shavings, etc. Drains should 
be placed at the back of the walls and should have proper 
outlets. 

Ventilation should be provided through large doors, prefer- 
ably one on each end. It has been found by the Pennsylvania 
Station that ventilation ducts and outlets are not so efficient 
as large doors and windows. An earth floor is best, with a false 
wood rack floor on top, to promote ventilation and care for 
the humidity requirements. Cross-pieces should not be placed 
at right angles to the movement of the air under such a floor 
as they will interfere with circulation. A concrete floor may 
be used but will often require sprinkling to keep the air suffi- 
ciently moist. 

Often such a cellar forms the basement of a building, the 
upper floor of which is used for packing and the storage of 
packages. The roof construction over the cellar should pro- 
vide insulation. 

A properly insulated common storage above ground should 
give results as good as or better than a cellar storage (Fig. 33). 
This is because the former is not influenced by ground tem- 
peratures to the extent that the cellar is, and the grower can 
control conditions better. 

Many types of construction and various materials have 
given satisfaction for storages above ground. Wood con- 
struction with proper insulation is both economical and effi- 
cient. Of course, it does not reduce the fire hazard as much 
as other types of construction. 

Studding 2 by 6 inches covered with matched siding sheeted 
with building paper will provide a 6-inch insulation space 
between the studding. Granulated cork or cork dust is excel- 
lent insulating material and is not expensive. For ordinary 
temperatures, such as are experienced in southern New York 



62 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



and Pennsylvania, filling the space with this material will 
provide adequate insulation. The thickness of the insulating 
material should be increased in more severe climates. Other 
cheap insulation materials are sawdust and mill shavings. 
It is essential that the insulation material, of whatever nature, 
be kept dry. 

For insulating purposes the following information from 
the Engineering Department of Pennsylvania State College 
is presented. One inch cork board is approximately equal in 
value to: 

1 inch granulated cork. 8 inches dry soil. 

1 inch Celotex. 48 inches wet soil. 

1 inch insulite or insulex. 12 inches brick. 

IVs inches sawdust. 12 inches hollow tile. 

1% inches shavings. 24 inches concrete. 

3^4 inches wood. 30 inches stone. 



Brick, stone, hollow tile, concrete, etc., do not insulate 
sufficiently without interior layers of non-conducting mate- 
rials. Interlocking tile waterproofed on the inner and outer 
walls provides good insulation at a moderate cost, as well as 
protection from fire. Corkboard, wood fiber, hair^ asbestos, 
mineral wool, cinders, and mica are some of the newer insulat- 
ing materials. 

The ceiling should have from 4 to 6 inches of insulation. 
Frequently it consists of granulated cork spread evenly over the 
matched boards, but a foot or more of finely broken or well- 
packed straw is also satisfactory. 

An earth floor overlain by a wood floor raised 6 to 8 inches 
on stringers or concrete sills gives good humidity conditions. 
Rodents may be controlled by covering the earth floor with 
wire netting or hardware cloth of i^-inch mesh. 

A concrete driveway should be provided directly through 
the building so that fruit may be unloaded conveniently at 
any point. This driveway may be filled with fruit after the 
rest of the house is full. 



STORING 



63 



Large doors should be provided in each end. Refrigerator 
doors may be desirable. A vestibule in front of each door 
will prevent the sun from shining directly into the storage 
and is important in both types of storage. Movable sills 
may be placed at the bottom of doorways ; they may be raised 
or taken out when loads are coming in. Windows should have 
double sash, covered by sealed or battened hinged doors. 

Some authorities advise a cold-air intake near floor level, 
20 by 30 inches, for each 2500 cubic feet of capacity and warm 
air outlets in the roof providing 2 square feet of opening for 
each 2500 cubic feet. Such outlets must be insulated and 
equipped with closing devices. Two or three outlets would 
be sufficient for the usual storage. 

A packing or work room may be provided in. the same 
building but should be separated from the storage proper. 

(/) Operating the Storage Plant. Fruit brought in while 
cool is in better condition for storage than that warmed by 
the sun or stored in the heat of the day. A good plan, where 
practicable, is to allow it to stand out over night, to be stored 
in the morning while cool. A small room equipped with 
mechanical refrigeration is useful in reducing the tempera- 
ture of the fruit before placing it in the common storage 
room. Stack the fruit, preferably in slatted crates, leaving 
a space of 6 to 8 inches between the crates and the outer walls; 
have corridors wherever needed. 

The apple box in common use is a good storage package 
if slats are nailed on the tops of the boxes to provide some 
ventilation between them. 

Ventilate the storage freely. Leave the doors of either type 
of storage open whenever the outside temperature is lower 
than the inside temperature, until the storage temperature is 
close to freezing. In the cellar storage, ventilation should 
be provided during the day, even when the weather is warm; 
the warm air probably will affect the below-ground cellar 
temperature but slightly because of the cool damp walls and 
floor, and will provide the much-needed ventilation. Ground 



64 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



temperatures below the frost line are between 50^-60° F. 
If the humidity is low, sprinkle the floor. This will seldom 
be necessary except where a concrete floor has been used. 
The above-ground storage should be closed on warm days, 
but opened at night. 




(Mich. State College) 



Fig. 34. This frame storage was built in 1922 at a cost of S4,000. It is 
40 by 60 feet and has a capacity of 10,000 bushels. A grading room 
extends across the front. The second floor is used as a storage for 
empty containers. This is one of the few storages in Michigan with a 
permanent false floor. A 2-inch thickness of hair felt in the walls pro- 
vides excellent insulation. Note the location of air intakes and outlets. 

ig) Picking and Packing Fruit for Storage. This has al- 
ready been treated in connection with ^Ticking the Fruit." 

Store only sound, mature fruit. Fruit lacking maturity 
does not keep well. The chief cause of the development of scald 
on certain varieties in storage is probably picking at an imma- 



STORING 



65 



ture stage. On the other hand, there is danger in some re- 
gions with long picking seasons of leaving the fruit until it is 
too soft. Store only good grades of standard varieties, and 
do not seek to hold them beyond their natural storage season. 

Store immediately after picking. Every day that fruit 
remains out of storage after it is picked cuts down the length 
of the time that it can be held in storage. A temperature 
approaching 30^ F. has been found most desirable for apples 




{Mich, fitate CoUeffe)" 



Fig. ZiA. This air-cooled Michigan storage, 36 by 50 feet and 13 feet 
from floor to ceiling, accommodates 8;500 bushels. In the outlet flues are 
motor-driven fans which can change the air completely seventeen times 
in an hour. The storage has a gravel floor. 

in cold storage. Excellent results have been secured in com- 
mon storage at 40"^ to 45^ F., the important thing, in addition 
to ventilation, being to prevent too wide and rapid fluctuation. 
Apples will withstand temperatures below 32° F. for short 
periods without damage and are sometimes subjected to 
lower temperatures before picking in late fall. If frosted, 
fruit should not be disturbed and the temperature should rise 
very slowly. Apples frosted on trees in the fall often escape 
injury if the weather is cloudy as the temperature rises. 



66 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



Apples are not usually repacked when taken from cold 
storage. In barreled apples, the face may be examined and any 
defective apples replaced. If the barrel has become slack, 
as frequently occurs, a cushion is inserted. 

Storage Scald: Rhode Island Greening, Yellow Newton, 
and some red varieties, including Rome, York Imperial, 
Stayman AVinesap, and Baldwin, often develop a brown skin 
in storage (Fig. 35) . It sometimes appears very rapidly after 
removing the fruit from cold storage and holding it at room 

temperature for a few days. 
It usually appears on the 
green or uncolored sides of 
the apples, though it may 
be found elsewhere. The 
market value of the fruit 
is affected and in severe 
cases is destroyed. 

It is known that no fun- 
gus organism is involved. 
The difficulty seems to be 
due to the accumulation of 
{N. r. state College of Agr.) gases derived from the 
Fig. 35. Typical storage scald on volatile oils of the fruit. 
Rhode Island Greening. These exist only in minute 

quantities, yet under cer- 
tain conditions they appear to kill the epidermal cells and 
cause the browning. 

In addition to the selection of sound, mature fruit, stored 
at once after picking, use oil wrappers impregnated with 18 
percent of a cheap mineral oil for box apples if the specimens 
are wrapped individually as in the Western box. For apples 
packed without wrapping either in boxes or barrels use 
shredded oil paper, distributing it through the package, using 
about ^2 pound to the bushel. In seasons when it is antici- 
pated that scald will be unusually prevalent, or for varieties 
that are especially susceptible, % pound may be used. Shreds 




MARKETING 



67 



about 1/4 i^ch wide, and 3 to 5 inches in length, made of a 
paper that does not pack down, are desirable. The exact 
quantity of oiled paper used seems less important than to 
have a bit of the paper in contact with every apple. 

Modified Atmosphere Storage. At the close of this chap- 
ter under General Information the possibilities of a modified 
atmosphere storage, particularly for apples and pears, are 
presented. The term "modified atmosphere" simply means 
that the proportions of oxygen and carbon dioxide are changed 
from those existing in the normal atmosphere in such a man- 
ner as to reduce life processes of the fruit and extend its 
period of keeping in a desirable condition. The term "gas 
storage'^ is sometimes applied. Considerable work in this 
field has been done in England. Both the California Experi- 
ment Station and the New York State College of Agriculture 
at Cornell University have conducted investigations in this 
country and the findings to date are presented. The possi- 
bilities in the process, especially for Mcintosh apples, as stud- 
ied at Cornell, and pears, as studied both in England and 
California, seem very promising. 

Developments in this field and their commercial implica- 
tions should be watched with close attention. 

5. Marketing. The grower is in a real sense attacking his 
marketing problem when he is growing his fruit. The market- 
ing problem is first of all a production problem. Until some- 
thing is produced that someone wants there can be no market- 
ing problem. Thus the first and the most essential factor is 
to grow superior fruit. It must then be picked carefully, 
graded according to rigid standards, and packed in a manner 
acceptable to the consuming public. 

Procedure: 

(a) Consider ways in which apples may be sold. 
(6) Consider functions performed in marketing. 

(c) Study various marketing agencies. 

(d) Secure shipping point inspection. 



68 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



{e) Load cars properly. 

(/) Consider market preferences and prices. 

(g) Consider export markets. 

(a) Consider Ways in Which Apples May Be Sold. Large 
quantities of apples are sold in some sections to local dealers 
acting for themselves, or as agents with outside connections. 
In some sections much of the fruit is packed by the growers 
and sold at the shipping point (f.o.b.) either to local dealers 
or agencies outside. F.o.b. sales, with shipping-point inspec- 
tion, as described later, are decidedly on the increase in most 
sections. 

In other sections the fruit is packed by the grower and 
consigned to agents at the point of consumption, who sell the 
shipment on commission. 

The simplest and most direct procedure is found where 
the grower deals with the retail grocer in a nearby town or 
w^here he works up a direct-to-the-consumer trade. There is 
opportunity in every section for a few growers to supply their 
communities in this way. Up to the saturation point for the 
community, better returns often .prevail than on the general 
market, even considering the greater amount of time fre- 
quently spent by the grower in marketing his product. 

Roadside or wayside stands and markets have developed 
with the automobile and good roads. Unsatisfactory prices 
at terminal and wholesale markets in recent years and the 
necessity for the grower to retain as much of the consumer's 
dollar as possible have hastened this development. The pro- 
portion of the crop handled through these channels is small, 
but in favorable locations, and with the opportunity to oper- 
ate the stands by members of the family, they have presented a 
favorable marketing opportunity for many growers. 

Certain factors governing the success of roadside markets 
are beginning to emerge. Studies made of 316 such markets 
during the three-year period 1931-33 and of 153 markets in 
1937 by the New York State College of Agriculture indicate 



MARKETING 




Fig. 36. (a) An attractive stand on a main high- 
way in New York. An awning may be attached 
to the projecting bars. This stand is operated 
by the grower who handles only his own 
products, (b) A Maryland roadside stand, sell- 
ing direct to the consumer. 



Simnyside Farm and Market 

Growers of Straivhcrrics, Cherries, Currants, 
Peaches, Pears, Apples and Grapes 
Private Orders Solicited 
Shipmeyits ynade to nil parts of the country 
Prices F. O. B.' 
We guarantee our- pac\ of fr mt 

Fi!.•^t Nariunal Bank. Mar lb or on;-!), .N, \. 

He'^hjrt Sears, Mailhoron'j)\, X 7 



Fig. 37. The business card of the grower whose 
stand is shown in Fig. 36(a). 



70 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



that the following conditions are either essential or highly de- 
• sirable. 

In order to secure a large number of customers, it is necessar>^ to 
locate near a large village or city on a road over which many consumers 
pass daily. The possibility of securing a large number of repeat cus- 
tomers is important. Tourists buy little more than they will eat in 
the car. 

A long season of operation is important. A combination of fruits 




Fig. 38. This stand is quite attractive. It has good display space and 
a variety of products. It is too close to the highway, and includes 
products not grown in the section. 



with vegetables and perhaps with other products will lengthen the sea- 
son of operation. 

Regularity of operation helps to build up a repeat trade. A large 
amount of business is done over the weekend. 

The use of lights increases the length of daily operation and enables 
the grower to sell to mam' customers who would not come during the 
day. Water to keep products fresh and as a convenience for motorists 
is desirable. 

A permanent stand is more attractive and should be used whenever 
the volume of sales and the marketing period justify the investment. 
However, the grower should not seek to build a store and should keep 
his overhead investment down. 



MARKETING 



71 



The general appearance of the stand and its surroundings are impor- 
tant. In the studies mentioned, sales from unpainted stands amounted 
to $81 per week, from painted stands $128 per week. The stand should 
be located in a prominent position on a stretch of straight road or on a 
broad hilltop and have adequate parking facilities on both sides of the 
road, if possible. Traffic hazards should be avoided. The presence of 
trees for appearance and shade is a distinct advantage. 

A good salesman, neat and courteous, who makes friends readily, is 
a most important factor in making sales and building up a repeat trade. 




{W. F. Allen Oo.) 



Fig. 38.4. A most uninviting stand. Compare with Figs. 36 and 38. 

A good display of fresh produce of high quality is very desirable. 
The produce should be kept fresh and attractive and free from the 
appearance of having been sorted over at all times. 

Most operators find that prices somewhere between wholesale and 
retail result in larger sales and greater income. Price tags may help sell 
produce when the salesmen are busy. 

An attractive and distinctive name, easily remembered, with some 
farm or horticultural or geographical significance, will help. 

Plans and estimates for suitable markets are available from various 
colleges of agriculture. 



72 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



Recent studies in the Hudson Valley section of New York 
indicate that the grower may receive a greater net return for 
tree-run sales when the entire crop is of high quality than 
from grading and packing in the usual manner — that returns 
when sold locally may be more satisfactory than when trucked 
or shipped to New York City. The same situation may be true 
in sections adjacent to other large centers of population. This 

is a very important con- 
sideration to the grower. 

The Public Cold Stor- 
age as a Selling Agency. 
Since the advent of the 
motor truck, the public 
cold storage has become a 
natural meeting place and 
general center of informa- 
tion for buyers. The stor- 
age management now often 
sells the fruit for the grower 
without any charge in ad- 
dition to the normal stor- 
age rate. The amount of 
fruit sold in this manner 
is substantial; returns to 
growers have compared 
Fig. 39. An attractive stand for the favorably in many cases 
sale of cider, freshly made. with those from other meth- 

ods of selling, and the prac- 
tice is growing. Satisfactory results build business for the 
storage management and ease the marketing problem for the 
grower. 

The grower sets the figure which he desires to receive for 
a given lot of fruit and the minimum that he would take for it. 
He may revise these figures from time to time as market con- 
ditions change. The storage management operates within this 
range, keeping in touch Vv^ith the grower and seeking the most 




MARKETING 



73 



favorable sale. The management collects from the buyer and 
makes the return to the grower. 

It is evident that this method depends for its success very 
largely upon the personal attributes and the business judg- 
ment of the storage operator. 

Collective Selling, The grower may often strengthen his 
position materially from the marketing standpoint by pooling 
his efforts with those of others engaged in the same line of busi- 
ness. This brings up the question of the cooperative packing 
association. Chief among its advantages from the marketing 
standpoint are: 

1. It provides a standardized product. Perhaps 50 growers 
bring fruit to the packing house, where it is packed by disin- 
terested parties into the proper grades. Though the grades 
may not be entirely uniform owing to variations in the indi- 
vidual lots of fruit, particularly as to color, they will be much 
more uniform than if packing is done by individual growers. 

2. A sufficient volume of standardized produce is pro- 
vided to prove an inducement to buyers. Buyers desire a 
product to conform to certain specifications. They wish to 
be able to obtain it at need and in sufficient quantities. Re- 
peat orders are the goal of all business. The individual fruit 
grower, as a rule, cannot supply repeat orders; the coopera- 
tive packing association can. For this reason, the ability to 
supply in carlots, at times needed, the packing association 
obtains a foothold in the fruit trade world that is denied to 
an individual, unless he is a very large grower. 

3. The association can keep in closer touch with market 
conditions. It may even have representatives or agents in 
some of the larger centers. It is thus in a stronger position 
to market its output intelligently and to make a satisfactory 
deal with the buyer than the individual grower is. 

4. The association can take steps to enlarge and increase 
its markets that would be prohibitive to the individual grower 
on account of the cost involved. It can carry on extensive ad- 
vertising and publicity campaigns. 



74 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



California oranges are found in every hamlet in the coun- 
try, put there and kept there through the application of the 
principles outlined above, absolutely impossible of application 
by the individual orange grower, perfectly possible for a strong 
well-organized and well-managed association of growers. Com- 
parison between citrus growing and apple growing is not en- 
tirely safe because of the extreme centralization of the citrus- 
producing areas, making organization comparatively simple^ 
but commercial apple growing is tending toward restriction 
to well-favored areas of intensive production, and apple 
growers may learn a great deal in regard to marketing from 
the orange, lemon, and grapefruit growers. 

5. The association may, by pooling orders, often purchase 
supplies of all kinds needed by its members at a decided sav- 
ing to the individual. This item has been one of the strong 
inducements in some places to form such an organization. 



A Grower^s Organization 

The New York and New England Apple Institute is an 
illustration of what growers acting jointly may do to help 
themselves. It is a branch of the National Apple Institute 
incorporated in 1935 as a membership corporation in New 
York State. It serves New York and New England and co- 
operates with similar agencies in other sections. 

It is a growers' organization, non-profit-making, formed 
for the purpose of increasing the sale and consumption of 
native-grown apples, to make the public more apple con- 
scious, and to assist the apple industry in its marketing 
problems. 

The grower members each year elect institute officers from 
their own number. They engage a paid manager and neces- 
sary office assistance. They derive their financial support 
from a voluntary pledge of 1 cent per bushel of their commer- 
cial crop of apples, culls and drops excluded. Growers pay 



MARKETING 



75 



one-third of the estimated amount by October the first of the 
crop year, the rest from time to time as the crop is sold, mak- 
ing full payment not later than the middle of the following 
June. Some additional support has also come through con- 
tributions by certain state departments, cold storages, and 
other allied businesses. Much valuable advertising is effected 
by distributing educational literature to schools and con- 
sumers' organizations. Chain stores, independent grocers, 
super markets, commission men, and wholesalers do a great 
deal to assist the institute in conducting newspaper and other 
displays. Monthly confidential bulletins explaining the cur- 
rent activities of the institute are sent to its members. At 
present the promotion of better grading and packing, the 
improvement of apple containers, and the publicizing of the 
health values of apples are receiving chief attention. 

Since its beginning only five years ago the institute has 
accomplished a great deal. Consumer interest and demand 
have been stimulated; new outlets for apples have been found; 
apples have been listed for sale cooperatively; varieties have 
been marketed at their proper season. In the crop year of 
1939-40, the institute performed yeoman service in the or- 
derly marketing of a very large crop at prices which, under 
the conditions, were very good. The institute constitutes a 
type of service which growers should support in every apple- 
growing section. It demonstrates that growers are not power- 
less in the face of adverse marketing conditions, that there is 
much which they may do for themselves. 

Table 6 and Fig. 40 list the unloads of apples in New York 
City from 1932-1939 inclusive by rail, boat and truck in terms 
of carloads. Not all the apples unloaded in New York City 
are consumed there for the city serves as a distributing center 
to smaller communities in the adjoining territory. The aver- 
age receipts are 9966 cars, of which shipments by truck now 
constitute about 60 percent. Of the 6570 cars received by 



76 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 

truck in 1939, 5831 cars went to twelve wholesale markets 
and 739 cars to three farmers^ markets. 

Motor truck shipments are increasing because growers can 
load and deliver almost at their option within very narrow 
time limits. A serious problem is that the individual grower 
does not know the extent of the truck movements and the 
supplies available on a given date. Ultimately public au- 

1600 

1400 

1200 

1000 

•8 800 
o 

600 
400 



200 
0 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 

Fig. 40. Carloads of apples unloaded in New York City by months 
from 1932 to 1939, inclusive — an 8-year average. 

thorities will be expected to provide this information through 
some type of forecasts and reports available to all. 

Motor truck shipments to New York City originate for the 
most part in Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Massachu- 
setts, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, 
and Virginia. 

It is probable that development of truck transportation ir* 
the New York City area is similar to that taking place in the 
territories serving other large centers of population. 




MARKETING 



77 



TABLE 6 



Apples — Unloads at New York by Rail (Including Boat) 
AND Truck, 1932-39 

Figures given are carlot equivalents. 



Year 


Rail 

(including boat) * 


Truck 


Total 


1932 


9775 


3059 


12,834 


1933 


6511 


4179 


10,690 


1934 


5567 


4412 


9,979 


1935 


4814 


4762 


9,576 


1936 


3791 


4667 


8,458 


1937 


4113 


4152 


8,265 


1938 


3936 


5372 


9,308 


1939 


4047 


6570 


10,617 


Average 


5319 


4647 


9966 



* Boat receipts are insignificant. 
Note increase in proportion of truck shipments. 

1939 unloads of oranges were 21,646 cars, bananas 11,773 cars, grapefruit 7559 cars. 



(6) Consider Functions Performed in Marketing, In 
whatever manner fruit may be sold, the marketing of the 
crop involves a number of distinct functions. Whether most 
of the operations are performed by the grower or some other 
agency, they represent a definite service rendered and entail 
an unavoidable costc The operations named below enter into 
the marketing of the commercial apple crop and must be per- 
formed by someone: 

(1) Mobilizing or assembling fruit at local shipping point. 

(2) Grading, standardizing, and packing. 

(3) Transporting, carting, and delivering. 

(4) Storing and warehousing. 

(5) Disseminating or demobihzing at wholesale terminal and 
markets. 

(6) Financing and assumption of risks. 

(7) Final distribution for consumption. 



78 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



If the grower or his agent does not perform these functions, 
someone else must do so, and the cost of the service must be 
deducted from the returns to the grower. 

The farther down the line the grower continues control of 
his product, the greater the possibility of increased financial 
reward, because each agent seeks to protect himself by a safe 




(Pennsylvania R. B. Go.) 



Fig. 41. Piers of the Penn. R. R. Co. in New York City for handling 
fruits and vegetables. Cars are ferried on floats holding 10 cars each. 
The piers have unloading space for 190 cars at a time. Their total 
capacity is 750 cars, 600 cars being the largest number handled to date. 
Nights are the periods of chief activity, preparing for the buyers who 
come early in the morning. Negroes and some Portuguese are employed 
to unload the cars, since these races appear best able to stand the heavy 
labor. These men work 12 hours on Sunday nights, and 8 hours per 
night during the remainder of the week. The railroad provides an 
inspection service in addition to that available through State and Fed- 
eral sources. Fifty coopers are commonly employed to repair broken 
packages; 35 groups of men of 8 men each to unload cars, and 35 tally 
clerks. Auctions are held in special rooms, beginning about 8:00 a.m., 
delivery of products occurring immediately thereafter. 

margin, but also the greater the risk that the grower runs. 
Even community or central packing house associations with 
large outputs usually sell their fruit through a commission 
house, or broker, indicating that there is a point in the mar- 
keting process at which it is desirable for a special agency or 
organization closely in touch with market affairs to step in 
and take over responsibility. 



MARKETING 



79 



(c) Study Various Marketing Agencies. At destination 
the fruit is ordinarily handled by a commission house, selling 
to a jobber or a large retailer, for 7 to 10 percent of the gross 
sale, depending upon the size of the transaction. The com- 
mission man inspects the fruit on arrival, pays transporta- 
tion charges, cartage, and storage charges if any, negotiates a 
sale, collects the money, deducts all charges plus his commis- 
sion, and makes return to the shipper. Some states maintain 
lists of bonded and licensed commission merchants for the 
protection of shippers. It is well to consult such lists before 
establishing a connection. 

The Jobber, The jobber purchases the fruit and resells on 
his own initiative. He may have a definite outlet in mind 
when he buys, or he may match his knowledge and experience 
against the turns of the market. He may gain or lose heavily. 
The fruit may go through the hands of several jobbers before 
it is offered for consumption by the retailer. 

The Broker. Brokers are intermediary agents between 
buyers and sellers. They are located in the market centers 
and as a rule deal only in carlots. The broker seldom has the 
goods in his possession. On information from the seller con- 
cerning the nature and grade of the product, the broker seeks 
a buyer among the trade. He wires the best terms he can 
get to the seller for acceptance or rejection. If the terms are 
accepted, the broker executes a sales contract, the goods are 
supplied, and he receives his commission (brokerage fee). It 
requires little in the way of an investment to engage in the 
brokerage business. It follows therefore that a broker should 
be selected with great care, and from among those who have 
established reputations. 

Selling by Auction, Thirteen cities in the United States 
now maintain 14 fruit auctions. They are: Boston, New 
York City (2), Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Cincin- 
nati, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Minneapolis, St. Paul, St. 
Louis, and New Orleans. With the exception of New Orleans, 
all these cities are in the section east of the Mississippi and 



80 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



north of the Ohio Rivers. This is the area of greatest density 
of population. 

A fruit auction is a place with facilities for displaying the 
merchandise, where buyers and sellers come together, with an 
auctioneer to sell the products. It is conveniently located for 
receipt of goods by ship or rail. It has ample unloading and 
warehouse facilities, and a selling room for the assembling of 
those interested in the auction, and where the selling actually 
takes place. The auctioneer conducts the sale from a high 
rostrum so that he may see everyone and all may see him. 
The seller may withdraw his offering under prescribed condi- 
tions, but may not bid himself. 

The auction house publishes a catalogue giving essential 
information about the quality and grade of goods, terms of 
sale, etc. Selling proceeds item by item or line by line. Buyers 
are usually wholesale grocers, restaurants, chain stores, hotels, 
or brokers. Small lots may be bid in by hucksters and push- 
cart men. The usual selling charge is from 2^4 to 3^4 percent 
on standard products in quantity. Consignment is not made 
direct to the auction company, but to a commission agent in 
the usual way, or to some representative of the shipper. The 
commission man in such case makes a lower charge, since the 
auction company does the selling. 

Auctions for the most part serve large organizations. They 
handle an enormous volume in a short period. A carload may 
be sold in 3 minutes or even less. Few individual growers use 
auctions, partly at least because they do not have the neces- 
sary volume of produce. Only well-known and carefully stand- 
ardized brands are handled. 

The auction method of selling is on the increase. Thus far 
only foreign fruits, as bananas, the citrus fruits of Florida and 
California, and the deciduous fruits of the Far West have been 
sold to any great extent by this method. Other fruit growers 
nearer the consuming centers have sold in the usual way. 
However, farm cooperatives are introducing the auction 
method in some producing sections. Their development should 



MARKETING 



81 



be watched and aided wherever feasible. Auctions are used 
extensively in Europe. 

Retail Agencies. Grocers, delicatessen stores, fruit and 
vegetable stands, and hucksters sell the fruit to the ultimate 
consumer. Fancy grocers and fruit stands sell in small quan- 
tities, by the piece or in small packages, with a large margin. 

The general grocer as a rule handles medium goods in 
larger quantities with a smaller margin. However, he sells 
many lots of a few pounds each, entailing considerable han- 
dling; the waste and loss are large items and the margin is 
greater for these reasons than could be justified otherwise. 

Hucksters, peddling by pushcarts and otherwise, handle 
large quantities in the course of the year. They buy and sell 
anything that gives hope of a profit. 

Table 7 indicates what actually happened to a shipment 
of Virginia apples packed in 50-pound baskets which arrived 
in Washington Market, New York City, on January 27, 1937. 

TABLE 7 



History of Shipment of Virginia Apples To Washington 
Market, New York City, as Compiled by New York City 
Department of Markiets and Works Progress Administration 





Gross 
Margin 


Cartage 

and 
Trans- 
portation 


Net 
Margin 


Percentage 
of House- 
wife's 
Dollar 


Retailer charged housewife 


$2.50 


0.85 


0.07 


0.78 


31.2 


Jobber charged retailer .... 


1.65 


0.25 


0.07 


0.18 


7.2 


Wholesaler charged jobber. 


1.40 


0.20 




0.20 


8.0 


Shipper received from 












wholesaler 


1.20 


1.20 


0.20 


1.00 


40.0 


Transportation, cartage, handhng 








13.6 




2.50 


0.34 




100.0 



82 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



The percentages absorbed by the various agencies disclose that 
40 percent of the sum paid by the housewife went to the 
shipper. The shipper might be the grower, or a local dealer. 
In the latter case, the grower^s percentage would be reduced 
still further. 

It is estimated by the Department of Markets that savings 
of 25(f could have been effected had the shipment been sent 
to the Bronx Terminal Market near the consuming population 
rather than to downtown New York with its congestion and 
high marketing costs. The savings, it is argued, would elimi- 
nate jobbers' margin and costs, increase the margins of shipper 
and wholesaler and save the housewife money. 

A study of retail outlets for apples and other fruits was 
made in the New York Metropolitan area in 1938 by the Co- 
operative Research and Service Division of the United States 

TABLE 8 

Relative Quantities of Selected Fresh Fruits Sold Annually 
Per Store by 3009 Retailers of Various Types, 
New York City, 1937-38 



Average Quantity Sold Annually per Outlet 



Selected 


Fruit and 


Grocery Stores 


Pushcart 


Delica- 
tessen 




Commodity 


Vege- 






or Wagon 


Meat 




table 


Inde- 


Chain 


Huck- 


Stores 


Markets 




Stores 


pendent 




sters 




No. of Stores. . . . 


1121 


479 


1219 


154 


22 


14 




1000 Ih. 


1000 Ih, 


1000 Ih, 


1000 Ih. 


1000 Ih. 


1000 Ih. 




50.8 


13.8 


7.0 


53.9 


8.2 


19.0 


Bananas 


19.4 


7.8 


6.0 


3.3 


8.5 


9.6 




59.4 


21.2 


26.2 


22.4 


16.5 


22.4 


Grapefruit 


28.9 


10.1 


10.7 


9.4 


8.7 


8.6 




15.5 


3.7 


4.2 


15.2 


2.0 


4.7 


Total fresh fruit 


174.0 


56.6 


54.1 


104.2 


43.9 


64.3 



MARKETING 



83 



Farm Credit Administration and the New York State College 
of Agriculture. The report of the study, which is to be con- 
tinued, is preliminary in nature, but some of the findings to 
date are worthy of note. 

Fruit and vegetable stands are the most important type of 
retail outlet for fruits, but pushcart or wagon hucksters lead 
for apples. See Table 8. 

The relationship of the quantity of apples sold, both East- 
ern and Western, to the annual sales of all fruits and vege- 
tables and to total sales of all commodities by 370 independent 
retail grocers is set forth in Table 9. In stores doing a busi- 
ness of $30,000 or less annually, fruits and vegetables account 
for about one-third the total sales. 

Fruit and vegetable stands sell fruit and vegetables almost 
exclusively. Table 10 classifies 976 such stands on the basis 
of gross sales and the quantities of Eastern and Western apples 
sold. In general about % of the total quantity of apples sold 
are Western apples. 

It is usually considered that the size of the family income 
is the chief factor in determining the consumption of fruits. 
This is doubtless true when purchasers are free from the influ- 
ence of sales-promotion activities. Table 11 does indicate that 
there is a relationship between family income as measured by 
rentals charged in the area in which the retail outlet is located 
and the sales of apples and other fruits. Note that sales of 
all fruits by independent grocers increased rapidly as incomes 
increased, but that the pushcart and huckster sales were heavi- 
est in the low-income areas. When the high-income groups 
buy apples from pushcarts, they take the Western apples. 

There appear to be some preferences on the basis of nation- 
ality in the purchase of apples. Stores catering predominantly 
to Jewish trade constituted 25 percent of the retail outlets but 
sold 37 percent of the apples and 35 percent of six other fruits. 
Italian customers predominating in 15 percent of the outlets 
purchased 7 percent of the apples, Germans 5 percent and 
4 percent respectively. 



84 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



TABLE 9 



Relation of Apple Sales to Sales of Fruits and Vegetables and to 
Sales of All Commodities, as Reported by 370 Independent 
Retail Grocers, New York City, 1937-38 



Annual Gross Sales 
of All Commodi- 
ties per Outlet 


Stores 
Report- 
ing 


Annual Sales 
per Outlet 


Quantity 
of Apples Sold 


AU Com- 
modities 


Fruits and 
Vegetables 


East- 
ern 


West- 
ern 


Total 




Number 


Dollars 


Dollars 


1000 lb. 


1000 lb. 


lOOOlb. 


Less than $ 5,000 


39 


3,500 


1,272 


3.0 


2.6 


5.6 


$ 5,000 - $ 9,999 


57 


7,437 


2,691 


4.0 


3.1 


7.1 


$10,000 - $19,999 


81 


14,541 


5,742 


7.1 


4.8 


11.9 


$20,000 - $29,999 


64 


24,712 


8,053 


8.8 


5.4 


14.2 


$30,000 - $49,999 


67 


38,893 


9,804 


10.4 


7.0 


17.4 


$50,000 - or more 


62 


89,194 


23,294 


17.1 


10.9 


28.0 



TABLE 10 

Relation of Apple Sales to Gross Sales of Fruits and Vegetables 
AND OF All Commodities, as Reported by 976 Independent 
Fruit and Vegetable Stands, New York City, 1937-38 



Annual Gross Sales 


Stands 


Quantity of Apples Sold 


of All Commodities 


Report- 








per Fruit Stand 


ing 


Eastern 


Western 


Total 






1000 lb. 


1000 lb. 


1000 lb. 


Less than $ 5,000 


116 


6.4 


4.3 


10.7 


$ 5,000 - $ 9,999 


222 


15.7 


7.1 


22.9 


$10,000 - $19,999 


329 


29.3 


11.4 


40.7 


$20,000 - $29,999 


147 


40.8 


18.2 


59.0 


$30,000 - $49,999 


93 


68.2 


32.9 


101.0 


$50,000 - or more 


69 


93.0 


49.8 


142.7 



MARKETING 



85 



TABLE 11 



Family Income and Annual Sales of Eastern and Western Apples, 
PER Retail Outlet, as Reported by Retail Outlets of 
Three Types, New York City, 1937-38 



Income Class 
Based on Rentals* 


Outlets 
Report- 
ing 


Average Quantity Sold per Outlet 


Eastern 


Western 


Total 


Total for 
7 Fruits t 




Number 


1000 lb. 


1000 lb. 


1000 lb. 


1000 lb. 


independent 












retail grocers: 












$20 - $34 


136 


4.2 


3.6 


7.8 


31.5 


$35 - $49 


137 


7.5 


5.2 


12.7 


52.2 


$50 - $64 


82 


10.2 


5.6 


15.8 


68.4 


$65 - or more 


124 


11.9 


8.2 


20.1 


106.8 


1121 independent stands: 












$20 - $34 


202 


19.4 


15.1 


34.5 


118.7 


$35 - $49 


314 


43.9 


15.3 


59.2 


212.4 


$50 - $64 


315 


35.0 


16.6 


51.6 


200.9 


$65 - or more 


290 


33.4 


18.8 


52.2 


229.1 


164 pushcarts or 












wagon peddlers: 












$20 - $34 


101 


41.7 


11.2 


52.9 


113.5 


$35 - $49 


50 


41.2 


16.5 


57.7 


137.3 


$50 - $64 


2 


1.9 


35.2 


37.1 


250.1 


$65 - or more 


1 




13.7 


13.7 


96.4 



* Income class based on average rental of census tract in which store is located, 
as shown by United States Census of 1930. 
t Includes apples, as well as fruits listed. 



The '^margins'^ taken by city agencies in selling fruit have 
long concerned growers. It is to the advantage of growers 
that these margins be sufficient to encourage retailers to push 
the product and low enough to create volume sales and main- 
tain a favorable competitive position with other products. 



86 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



Table 12 shows that more than half the retail agencies re- 
ported margins of less than 30 percent and 6 out of 10 push- 
cart and wagon hucksters had margins of less than 20 percent. 

TABLE 12 



Variations in Gross Retail Margins on Apples, 

BY Type of Retail Outlet, as Reported by 
Independent Retailers, New York City, 1937-38 



Range in 
Average 
Gross Alargin 
(percent)* 


Total 
Outlets 
Report- 
ing 


Proportion of Retail Outlets Reporting 


Total 

for 

All 
Outlets 


Fruit and 
Vegetable 
Stands 


Independent 
Grocery 
Stores 


Pushcart 
or Wagon 
Hucksters 


Delica- 
tessen 
Stores 


Meat 
Markets 




Number 


Percent 


Percent 


Percent 


Percent 


Percent 


Percent 


Less than 15 


109 


3 


5 


41 


7 




7 


15- 19 


147 


8 


8 


20 




11 


9 


20 - 24 


255 


16 


14 


20 


14 


22 


16 


25-29 


389 


25 


27 


11 


36 


11 


24 


30-34 


156 


11 


9 


3 


14 




10 


35-39 


183 


12 


13 


1 


22 


34 


12 


40-49 


119 


9 


7 


1 


7 




7 


50-74 


212 


.14 


15 


3 




22 


13 


75-99 


13 


1 


1 








1 


100 — or more 


10 


1 


1 








1 



* Gross margin — difference between price paid for commodity and the retail 
eelHng price; for example, if a bushel of apples were bought for $1.00 and sold for $1.35, 
the gross margin was 35 cents, or 35 percent. 



As to the size or unit of sale the report makes the follow- 
ing statement: 

Practically all the leading fruits were purchased by consumers in 
extremely small quantities. In 1790 independent retail outlets in New 
York City, sales of 38 percent of the Eastern apples were in quantities 
of 3-pound lots, 33 percent in 2-pound lots, and 12 percent in 1-pound 
lots, making a total of 83 percent in lots of 3 pounds or less. Sales of an 
additional 7 percent were in 4-pound lots, and 3 percent in 5-pound lots. 
Sales of Western apples were mostly by number or by the pound. That 
is, sales of 35 percent were in 3-pound lots or less, and 31 percent in 
units of 4 apples or less. Similar variations were observed among sales 



MARKETING 



87 



of all the leading fruits. The variations in size and type of retail sales 
units seriously restrict the field for consumer-size packages. 

The spoilage factor influences both the retailer^s margin 
and the size of individual sales. The larger the volume of 
apples handled, the lower the percentage of spoilage, presum- 
ably because the retailer feels that the matter is of sufficient 
importance to engage his attention, insuring better care, and 
because of a more rapid turnover. The grower should keep 
in mind that no one can make the fruit any better than it was 
when it left his hands. Spoilage, or the certainty of it, often 
begins, not in the city, but in the orchard, on the truck and in 
the packing house. 

TABLE 13 

Spoilage as Related to Volume of Apples Handled 
, AS Reported by Various Types of Independent 

Retailers in New York City, 1937-38 



Quantity handled annually 




Percentage 


of Spoilage 




Eastern Apples 


Western Apples 


Summer 


Winter 


Summer 


Winter 


Less than 50 bushels . . . . 


13 


8.1 


10.9 


9.1 


More than 500 bushels .... 


6 




6.4 




More than 2500 bushels 




5.8 




4.3 



One reason why apples and other deciduous fruits have 
had hard going in competition with citrus fruit and bananas 
lies perhaps in the disclosure of the study that, of the fruit 
and vegetable stands, 96 percent had oranges, 71 percent had 
grapefruit, and 84 percent had bananas on sale every week in 
the year against 13 percent for Western apples and about 
6 percent for Eastern apples. Of the grocery stores, 28 per- 



88 



HARVESTIXG, STORIX'G, AXD MARKETING 



cent carried Eastern apples and 11 percent Western apples 
throughout the year. Forty-seven percent of the hucksters 
carried oranges the year rounds but only 5 percent carried 
apples. 

If modified atmosphere storage or some other device will 
make really fine apples as available as oranges everywhere all 
the time, this may make a tremendous difference in the present 
apple-orange relationship. 

TABLE 14 



SouKCE OF Supply of Eastern and Western Apples, 
AS Reported by Indepent)ent Retatlers, 
Xew York City, 1937-38* 





Proportion 


Purchased from Each Source 


by 




Source of Supply 


Fruit and 
Vegetable 
Stands 


Inde- 
pendent 
Grocers 


Pushcart 
or Wagon 
Hucksters 


Delica- 
tessens 


Meat 
Markets 


.\11 
Stores 


Volume 
Handled 




Percent 


Percent 


V 

Percent 


Percent 


Percent 


Percent 


Bushels 


Eastern apples: 
















Wholesaler or g obber 


89.8 


96.2 


90^.7 


100.0 


95.5 


90.5 


920,318 


Farmer at market . . 


7.0 


2.5 






4.5 


5.7 


58,429 




1.9 










1.6 


16,552 
15,390 


Farmer at farm .... 


1.0 










1.5 


Wagon peddler or 






\ 










huckster 


t 


0.9 


2.3 






0.4 


3,838 
2,902 


Farmer at store .... 


0.3 


0.4 


... 1 






0.3 


Total 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


1,017,429 
























Boxe^ 


Western apples: 
















Wholesaler or jobber 


82.7 


98.8 


93.6 


98.5 


100.0 


85.6 


456,620 




17.2 


0.6 


3.7 






14.0 


74,467 


Wagon peddler or 












t 


0.6 


2.7 


1.5 




0.3 


1,690 
410 


Trucker 


0.1 








0.1 
















Total 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


533,187 





* Of the 1790 independent retailers, 91 did not handle Eastern apples, and 98 did 
not handle Western apples, 
t Less than 0.1 percent. 



MARKETING 



89 



Table 14 is interesting as indicating the sources from which 
independent retailers secure their apple supplies. From 85 
to 90 percent of all apples are obtained from jobbers, but 14 
percent of Western apples come through the auction process. 
Fruit and vegetable stands secure 7 percent of their Eastern 
apples direct from the growers. 

TABLE 15 



Gkades of Eastern Apples Sold, 
AS Reported by 1699 Independent Retailers, 
New York City, 1937-38* 





Retailers Reporting 




Sale of Grade 


Grade Reported Sold 








Number 


Percentage 




of Total 


No 1 


302 


18 


Best 


249 


15 


First quality or first grade 


197 


12 


No. 2 


119 


7 


Extra fancy 


102 


6 


Grade A 


83 


5 


U. S. No. 1 


79 


5 




75 




Ungraded 


70 


4 




67 


4 


Named varieties 


39 


2 


Top grade 


31 


2 




22 


1 


Cheaper or lower grades 


22 


1 


Good 


20 


1 


Medium 


15 


1 


Others f 







* Ninety-one (or 5 percent) of the 1790 retailers surveyed did not handle Eastern 
apples. 

t Fifteen other grades were mentioned, but no one of them was reported by 1 
percent of the retailers. 



90 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 

There is great confusion as to grades and grade terms or 
at least a widespread use of miscellaneous terms (Tables 15 
and 16). However, the retail growers know good apples, and 
it will be noted that they preponderantly prefer the better 
grades. Few handle ^^seconds/' ^^ungraded/' ^^medium/' etc., 
apples from any section. 

TABLE 16 

Grades of Western Apples Sold, 
AS Reported by 1692 Independent Retailers, 
New York City, 1937-38* 



Retailers Reporting 
Sale of Grade 



Grade Reported Sold 


Number 


Percentage 

Ol X O Ldi 


Extra fancv 


306 


18 


Best 


243 


14 


First quality or first grade 


184 


11 


Fancy 


174 


10 


No. 1 


168 


10 


Grade A 


73 


4 


Second grade 


55 


3 


Named varieties 


41 


2 


U. S. No. 1 


27 


2 


No. 2 


27 


2 


Top grade 


26 


2 




24 






22 






17 




Cheaper or lower grade 


14 




B 


10 




Others f 





* Ninety-eight (or 5 percent) of the 1790 retailers surveyed did not handle Western 
apples. 

t Eleven other grades were mentioned, but no one of them was reported by 1 per- 
cent of the retailers. 



MARKETING 



91 



TABLE 17 



Varieties of Eastern Apples Reported Sold by 1699 
Independent Retailers, New York City, 1937-38* 





Retailers Reporting Sale of Variety 


Vfivi pf.v 








Number 


Percentage of Total 


Mcintosh 


1425 


84 




1124 


66 




718 


42 


York 


381 


22 


Northern Spy 


336 


20 


Delicious 


143 


8 


Rome Beauty 


120 


7 


Wealthy 


115 


7 




104 


6 


Wolf River 


93 


5 




58 


3 




42 


2 




32 


2 










25 






22 












17 






15 




Graven stein 


14 




Stark 


14 




''Cooking" 


13 






9 






9 




Others f 







* Ninety-one (or 5 percent) of the 1790 retailers included in this survey did not 
handle Eastern apples. 

t Twenty other varieties were reported as sold, but no one of them was mentioned 
by 1 percent of the retailers. 



92 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



As to varieties, though many are handled, only , a few are 
important or really desired. Tables 17 and 18 indicate the 
situation and contrast both the demand for identical varieties 
from Eastern and Western sections and, what is more impor- 

TABLE 18 , 



Vakieties of Western Apples Reported Sold by 1692 
Independent Retailers, New York City, 1937-38* 





Retailers Reporting Sale of Variety 


Variety 








Number 


Percentage of Total 




1546 


91 


Winesap 


694 


41 


Pippin 


356 


21 


Rome Beauty 


277 


16 


Spitzenburg 


219 


13 




189 


11 


Newtown 


96 


6 


Golden Delicious 


85 


5 


Gravenstein • 


74 


4 


Mcintosh 


46 


3 


York 


17 




Northern Spy 


16 




Winter Banana 


15 






14 




Northwestern Greening 


11 




Others f 







* Ninety-eight (or 5 percent) of the 1790 retailers included in this survey did not 
handle Western apples. 

t Nine other varieties were reported as sold, but no one of them was mentioned 
by 1 percent of the retailers. 



tant, the relative standing of varieties in terms of demand. 
Michigan, Ohio, and Shenandoah-Cumberland apples are in- 
cluded in the Eastern list with those of the Northeastern States. 
It is also evident that retail agencies, to say nothing of con- 



MARKETING 



93 



sumers, are still unfamiliar with many varieties. Coddling is 
an old variety— probably not a bushel reaches the New York 
market; Pippin in the Western list is probably Newtown; 
Mcintosh, Northern Spy, and Baldwin do not belong in the 
Western list; Stayman Winesap, a variety of substantial im- 
portance, appears on neither list. It may be included with 
Winesap, a distinct variety. 

Chain-store systems are strong promoters of the sale of 
apples, giving a large amount of publicity consistently through- 
out the year to the effort. They are cooperating well with 
growers' organizations. In New York City in 1937-38, five 
chains sold 345,000 bushels of apples, of which 75 percent 
were from Eastern growing sections. Table 19 lists the price 
per pound by months of apple varieties handled by these 
chains. The figures following the variety names indicate the 
number of apples in the package. Prices vary from year to 
year ; the relationships between varieties are of interest. Chain 
stores know their varieties, because fruits are usually pur- 
chased in large quantities by experienced buyers. 

In 1938, the United States Department of Labor made a 
survey of the incomes of 14,266 families in New York City. 
It found that 

24.2% had a family income of less than $1000 

14.9% " " " $1000 — $1499 

18.4% " " " " $1500 — $1999 

14.6% " " " " " $2000 — $2499 

10.2% " " " " " $2500 — $2999 

12.6% " " " " " $3000 — $4999 

5.1% " " " " $5000 and more 

Granted that this situation may not be normal, owing to 
general conditions, it still is evident that the bulk of city fami- 
lies have very modest incomes, that they must buy with care^ 
and that it is a major concern of the grower that distributing 



94 



HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



PQ 



CD 

H 

o 
O 



00 
W CO 

T-H 

I ^ 

Pm o 



Eh 

(I 



' o 

I 

CD 

P3 
§ 



00 
CO 
C5 



CO 
Oi 



<I1 



►-5 



o 



o 



3 



<1 



Si 
o 



00 -coco .O00C0OOTt^O^-l 



00TtHC^C0C0Tj<iOOCDO(NT-iO 

TiicdidcocoTjHr>i>i>dcdi>id 



OCOOt^C^-^COasc^OriHi-HO 

id CO c<i CO i> CD 00 CO i> id 



ocooocoiotj<ooioiooi> 

id CO CO CO* "<?^^ co' CO CO 00 CO 



O CO 

id CO ^ 



lO CO T— I 1> I— I 05 00 
CO !> CO 1> Oi CO 



O rt^ 00 

id CO* id 



(M 00 CO as ^ 05 (M 

^* CO i> d i> 



OO^ticO -OOIOO^OOtH 

CO »d • CO i> i> i> d 00 



tJHt-hO •iOOI>Tt<aiCOiO 

Tj^t^lid -cq-^'t^oot^T-HOO 



O 00 T-H 

Ti^ d 1> 



id 



O lO CO 

d (M d 



O T-H 
O T-H 



§ -2 



02 CO 



O 

I— I 

o 



O CO 
^ 8 



o o 

« a 

CO M 

03 o3 



. 00 
. 00 

6 I 

II 



o 
o 



GO 02 

o o 



00 



00 



S ;S ;S n 00 



P P 

P^ 

VI CO 

<D CD 



2 a 

o o 
O 

o a? 

CO CO 



^^^^^ 



00 (N 

TT 

CO CO 

-4-3 

02 02 



MARKETING 



95 



costs be reduced wherever possible. It also raises the question 
as to what grades of fruit the families with incomes of less 
than $2000 can really afford to buy and how this fruit may be 
got to them at prices which they can pay. 

(d) Secure Shipping -Point Inspection. Inspection of ship- 
ments by federal or state officials is a forward step in the 
marketing process. Such service is available at nominal cost 
at the principal shipping points. In the season of 1938-39 the 
Federal Government inspected 46,840 cars of apples at point 
of shipment. The demand for the service has increased 
steadily. 

The inspectors certify the grade and condition of the ship- 
ments, and their reports constitute legal evidence. This serv- 
ice encourages greater care on the part of shippers and also 
reduces the rejection of cars at destination for trivial reasons 
when the market is oversupplied. The inspection system im- 
parts stability and confidence to the market, and is sure to 
develop as its value is better understood. Inspection costs 
vary in the different states but average about $4.00 per car. 
This is the best kind of insurance that the shipper can take out. 

Inspection at receiving markets is also available. In the 
season of 1938-39 the Federal Government made 1614 such 
inspections. The charge is $4.00 per car for a certificate of 
grade or $2.50 for an examination of condition of the fruit. 
Further information relative to inspection may be obtained 
from the United States Department of Agriculture, or from 
the various state departments of agriculture. 

{e) Load Cars Properly. This is an important factor in- 
fluencing the condition in which fruit arrives at destination. 
Careless loading with open spaces between packages means 
loss in transit and depreciation on the entire car (Fig. 42). 
Various systems of loading have been developed, but any satis- 
factory system requires that the packages be packed firmly 
in the first place, that they be firmly stacked against the 
car walls and against each other, and that ventilation be pro- 
vided to all parts of the car. Any railroad over which fruit is 



96 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



shipped will furnish directions for loading. Broken or defec- 
tive packages should not be loaded. The collapse of one such 
package may cause the whole load to shift, resulting in very- 
great damage. 

Carloads vary, but will run from 160 to 200 barrels and 360 
to 576 bushel baskets. Car capacities are usually figured at 
175 barrels and 756 boxes. Barrels and baskets are loaded 
four tiers high, as a rule. Summer varieties of apples may 




{Merchants Despatch) 

Tia, 42. (o) A well-loaded car of tub bushels presenting an attractive 
appearance at destination, {h) Baskets in an improperly loaded car at 

destination. 



sometimes carry better if loaded three tiers high. Minimum 
carloads are specified by the railroads and take a certain rate. 
A smaller quantity in the car must go at a higher rate. 

The space about the door may be left open, the packages 
being strongly braced and stayed to prevent shucking. If the 
packages do not take up all the space in the car, instead of 
bracing at the doorway, a bulkhead may be built at one end. 
This should be built according to standard specifications for 
the packages being loaded. 



MARKETING 



97 



Refrigerator ears are almost essential for shipment except 
during the late fall. In warm weather their insulation protects 
from high outside temperatures. In cold weather, they pro- 
tect the fruit from freezing. Their use has increased 
enormously. 

It takes many hours to cool fruit that is put in the car at 
warm temperatures. Ordinarily fruit registers about 75° F. 
when loaded, or 43° higher than the ice temperature. The 
rate at which the fruit cools depends largely on its position 
in the car. The warmest area is in the top layer midway 
between the door and the bunker. The coldest area is in the 
bottom layer adjacent to the bunker. Fruit placed at 75° 
to 80° F. in the car may reach about 45° F. in 12 hours in the 
bottom layer whereas it may require from 6 to 7 days for the 
fruit in the top layer to reach 50° F. 

Before the cold air can penetrate to the centers of the pack- 
ages and cool the fruit properly in all layers, the car may be 
well on the way to its destination and early and soft varieties 
of fruit may have ripened considerably. It is desirable, there- 
fore, to load the fruit in the cool of the morning, to put it in so 
as to facilitate air movement as much as possible, and to ar- 
range for re-icing of the car en route as may be necessary. 

In some sections it will be necessary in severe weather to 
afford additional protection against freezing by lining the car 
with paper, putting straw on the floor, and using heaters. 

Ventilator cars are available on some railroads. They do 
not provide for icing but are built to permit circulation of air 
through the car. They are used for fall and winter varieties 
shipped after the weather is cool but before temperatures are 
severe. Refrigerator cars are used as ventilator cars for the 
late and hard varieties of apples when outside temperatures 
have become sufficiently cool. In such cases the ice is omitted 
from the bunkers and the hatches are opened when the out- 
side temperature is cold enough for refrigeration but not low 
enough to cause freezing. 

Little has been done as yet in pre-cooling apples in special 



98 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



storage rooms before loading, as is commonly done with citrus 
fruits. Experiments are being conducted in this regard, as' 
well as in the use of "dry ice/' 

Information as to procedure in ordering and billing out 
cars may be obtained from the carriers. Cars should be or- 
dered in writing at least 48 hours in advance of the time when 
they will be needed. Careful records of all particulars should 

APPLES: PRODUCTION AND PRICE IN THE UNITED STATES. 1919-38 

INDEX NUMBERS ( 1924-29=100) 
PERCENT I 1 1 '. I I 1 1 1 1 1 




1919 1921 1923 1925 1927 1929 1931 1933 1935 1937 

YEAR BEGINNING JULY 
•BASED ON AUGUST I INDICATIONS 

{V. S. D,A.) 



Fig. 43. Apple prices usually vary inversely with production. Since the 
beginning of the depression, prices have been low in relation to volume 
of production largely because of decreased consumer buying, power. 

be kept; such information may be valuable in connection with 
claims for damages. 

(/) Consider Market Preferences and Prices, The yearly 
average price received by producers of apples is governed 
largely by the size of the crop and by changes in the general 
price level. The variations from year to year in average 
prices for the season are determined largely by variations in 
supply. See Fig. 43. 



MARKETING 



99 



Keeping in mind that the greatest density of population 
and chief consuming centers are in the territory north of the 
Ohio and east of the Mississippi Rivers, it is evident from 
Table 20 that the growers of New England, New York, Mary- 
land, Virginia, Ohio, Michigan, and adjoining states have a 
favored position with regard to transportation costs. It costs 
65.5 cents to put a car of apples with standard ventilation 
into New York City from Hood River, Oregon, 16 cents from 
Hancock, Maryland, 26.5 cents from Fennville, Michigan, and 
15 cents from Brockport, New York. Even as far west as 
Omaha the advantage of the Northeastern producing sections 
is marked. 

TABLE 20 



Freight Eates on Apples, 1940, in Cents per Bushel 





Standard Ventilation 
Point of Origin 


Refrigeration 
Point of Origin 


Destination 




















Brock- 


Han- 


Fenn- 


Hood 


Brock- 


Han- 


Fenn- 


Hood 




port, 


cock, 


ville, 


River, 


port, 


cock, 


ville, 


River, 




N. Y. 


Md. 


Mich. 


Ore. 


N. Y. 


Md. 


Mich. 


Ore. 




39.5 


25 


36 


60.5 


52.83 


36. 


42 


48.38 


73.06 




19 


21 


27 


65.5 


27.57 


30 


04 


38.42 


78.72 


Chicago, 111 


21.5 


23.5 


11.5 


52.5 


31.02 


33 


97 


19.11 


62.68 




16 


19.5 


13.5 


65.5 


24.57 


29 


02 


21.11 


77.40 


Louisville, Ky 


22 


22.5 


17 


56.5 


32.47 


32 


97 


26.52 


67.74 


Minneapolis, Minn. 


33.5 


37.5 


23.5 


52.5 


44.92 


49 


88 


33.97 


62.42 


New York, N. Y . . 


15 


*12 


26.5 


65.5 


22.61 


*19 


61 


36.97 


78.06 






tl6 








t23 


61 








41.5 


28 


32.5 


52.5 


52.92 


40 


38 


42.97 


62.42 


Pittsburgh, Pa ... . 


16 


13.5 


18.5 


65.5 


23.61 


21 


11 


28.02 


77.40 




20.5 


23 


28 


65.5 


30.02 


32 


04 


39.42 


78.72 


Washington, D.C. . 


18.5 


11 


24.5 


65.5 


28.02 


17 


66 


34.92 


78.06 



* Export. t Domestic. 

Rates are figured on the basis of 50 pounds per bushel. Rates per bushel from Brock- 
port, Hancock, and Fennville are figured on the basis of 175 barrels or 525 bushels per 
car. Rates per bushel from Hood River are figured on the basis of 756 bushel boxes per 
car. 



It is interesting to note that the rates on apples for export 
and consigned for that purpose may be less than for domestic 



100 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



use, though the fruit passes through the same points, as ship- 
ments from Hancock, Maryland, to New York City. 

The Pacific Coast region is under a decided handicap in 
shipments to all points noted. Refrigeration adds about 20 
percent to the rates on long hauls and up to 50 percent on short 
hauls. 

TABLE 21 



Relative Wholesale New York City Apple Prices by Varieties 
FOR Fifty-six Years. Baldwin Taken as 100 





1879-80 


1889-90 


1899-00 


1909-10 


1919-20 


1928-29 


Variety- 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 




1888-89 


1898-99 


1908-09 


1918-19 


1927-28 


1934-35 




Percent 


Percent 


Percent 


Percent 


Percent 


Percent 




100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 










126 


138 


135 




120 


155 


141 


125 


100 


98 






1 1 Q 

iio 


yy 


O'l 




/ 0 




101 


112 


108 


109 


103 


108 




152 


133 


121 


119 


116 


99 




128 


145 


130 


115 


93 


93 






106 


95 


92 


88 


86 








146 


137 


105 


100 








147 


142 


155 


140 




100 


105 


104 


113 


117 


121 




98 


110 


105 


109 


115 


113 




91 


88 


82 


80 


75 


73 




130 


130 


119 


107 


99 


100 


Twenty Ounce 


113 


123 


112 


109 


96 


100 








136 


120 


100 


102 






121 


122 


117 


106 


94 






126 


116 


107 


101 


97 


October to May — 














average price per 














barrel for Baldwin* 


$2.59 


$2.90 


$2.90 


$3.62 


$4.79 


$3.73 



* Given in terms of barrel because the barrel has been the prevailing package until 
comparatively recent years. For transfer to bushels, allow 3 bushels per barrel. 



Tables 21 and 22, issued by the Department of Agricul- 
tural Economics and Farm Management of the New York 
State College of Agriculture at Cornell University give data 
on the relative wholesale prices of 17 varieties of apples on 



MARKETING 



101 



TABLE 22 

Autumn Prices by Varieties When Wealthy Prices Equal 100 * 



Average of Weekly Price Quotations 



Variety 










1910 to 


1918 to 


1927 to 




1917 


192G 


1934 




Percent 


Percent 


Percent 


Wealthy 


100 


100 


100 


Alexander 


106 


94 


95 


Astrachan 


79 


82 


82 


Baldwin 


76 


84 


103 


Ben Davis 


78 


72 


86 


Cortland 






102 1 


Delicious 




118 


110 




94 


94 


112 


Fameuse (Snow) 


97 


96 


104 


Gravenstein 


95 


90 


96 


Grimes 


75 


76 


94 


Hubbardston 


79 


83 


94 


Jonathan 


116 


106 


106 


Maiden Blush 


85 


86 


93 


Mcintosh 


115 


134 


132 


Northwestern Greening 


115 


107 


105 


Duchess (Oldenburg) 


93 


85 


85 


R. 1. Greening 


89 


98 


113 


Tompkins King 


93 


97 


100 


Twenty Ounce 


90 


95 


115 


Wolf River 


105 


96 


99 



* For August, September, and October, price relatives were calculated from quota- 
tions in the Saturday edition of the Producer's Price-Current^ New York City. Each 
quotation in bushel baskets for each grade for each variety was compared with the 
Wealthy quotation for the same grade, 

t Prices for 1932 only. 



the New York market compared to Baldwin as a standard for 
56 years, and on fall prices of 20 varieties with Wealthy at 
100 for 25 years. They are worthy of study as indicating 



102 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



trends over long periods. It is probable that the situation 
is much the same on other markets. 

This information should be of value to the grower in select- 
ing varieties for commercial planting and may also be valuable 
in determining the proper time to sell. In regard to the former, 
if the price trend is downward over long periods and if the 
variety is difficult to grow or handle, or produces a low pro- 
portion of fruit packing in the higher grades, it would not seem 
to be a good planting investment. If a variety does not on 
the average appreciate in value enough during the storage 
season to pay storage and overhead charges and return a 
margin of profit from holding, then it would seem to be best 
to sell immediately in a normal season. Such factors may, 
of course, be upset in years of short crops or abnormal condi- 
tions. Cold storage has certainly been a considerable factor 
in extending the season for some varieties in recent years, as 
many more varieties are at present quoted on the market in 
January and May than for the early periods of market reports 
when cold storage was not available. 

Taking Baldwin and Wealthy as standard, varieties not 
selling as well in recent years as formerly are Russet, Ben 
Davis, York Imperial, Duchess (Oldenburg), Fameuse, and 
Maiden Blush among others. On the other hand. Northern 
Spy and Rhode Island Greening have sold relatively better. 
Mcintosh, not quoted until recent years, and Delicious have 
been selling exceptionally well. 

Prices in New York City for apples grown in 1932, 1933, 
and 1934 averaged about one-third less than the average price 
of the five preceding crops, 1927-1931, as indicated by Table 
23, from the same source as Tables 21 and 22. The largest 
decrease in price was for Mcintosh, 39 percent. Delicious 
prices decreased only 24 percent. Mcintosh prices have de- 
creased more than other varieties, probably because of the 
increased Mcintosh production. Decreases in the main are 
no doubt due largely to the general depression of price levels. 



MARKETING 103 
TABLE 23 



Recent Declines in Wholesale Apple Prices in New York City 





Average Price per Bushel for Apples 


Variety 


Graded Good to Fancy 










1927-28 to 


1932-33 to 


Decrease 




1931-32 


1934-35 




Cents 


Cents 


Percent 


Mcintosh 


259 


158 


39 


Rhode Island Greening 


202 


132 


35 


Northwestern Greening 


10/ 




04: 


Northern Spy 


227 


151 


33 


Wealthy 


158 


106 


33 


Wolf River 


150 


101 


33 


Albemarle Pippin* 


266 


184 


31 


Rome Beauty 


187 


139 


26 


Baldwin 


181 


134 


26 


Delicious 


187 


143 


24 


Average 


198 


136 


31 



* Yellow Newtown. 



Studies of Consumers^ Demand. The New York Food 
Marketing Research Council in cooperation with the Bureau 
of Agricultural Economics of the United States Department 
of Agriculture has made a study of the consumers^ demand 
for apples in New York City. Some 3100 reports from fami- 
lies of the principal nationalities and various income groups 
were received. The following results are of interest: 

1. The housewife is the buyer of fruit as of other supplies for the 
home. It is to her views and desires that the fruit trade must cater. 

2. A very large percentage of housewives know apples only in terms 
of color — red, green, yellow, etc. This is especially true in the low- 
income groups, but is evident in all groups. 

Among the poorer classes, purchasers of apples on fhe' average do not 
know a single variety of apples by name, the medium-income group, 



104 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



representing 970 families, knows 1.69 varieties, the group with annual 
incomes above S6000 knows 3 varieties on the average. 

3. Appearance is much more significant than variety names. Large 
size, high color, and cleanliness of the fruit attract; blemishes, soiled 
condition, small size, and poor color repel. 

4. Orders were placed for the most part either for ^'eating" or "cook- 
ing" apples. Only 24 per cent ordered by variety names, and of these 
only 13 per cent ordered by brand names. 

5. For eating purposes, Mcintosh, Baldwin, Fameuse (Snow), De- 
licious, Northern Spy, Spitzenburg, and Winesap were desired in the 
order named, with Mcintosh considerably in the lead. 

Jewish people were especially partial to Mcintosh and gave as their 
reason its high quality. The English, American, and Irish groups 
favored Delicious and Baldwin. Delicious was the most popular variety 
among the high-income families. 

For cooking purposes green apples or "Greenings" were pre-eminently 
in demand. 

6. Apples are purchased in very small quantities. Thirty-eight per- 
cent of the families purchased in units of 12 apples. Units of 10 and 6 
Apples were also popular. Only 13 per cent purchased in units larger 
than 12 apples. 

Purchases by the pound are usually made in 3- or 4-pound units. 
Almost no fruit is purchased by the barrel, box, or basket. 

7. The use of the apples purchased is: 57 percent are used in the raw 
state, 15 percent are used for sauce, 13 percent are baked, 11 percent 
are made into pies, and 3 percent into salads. Italians use more apples 
in the raw state than any other nationality. 

As the family income rises, a larger proportion of the fruit is used in 
the prepared state and less is eaten raw. 

8. The chief reason given for the purchase of apples is their health- 
giving qualities. 

It appears from these studies that attractiveness is the 
major factor in sales; that publicity relating to varieties, pack- 
ages, or brands has had a minor effect as yet; that the retailer 
occupies a position of great significance in influencing pur- 
chases; and that the healthful qualities of apples constitute 
their greatest appeal. 

Results in other consuming centers, especially those with 
populations more uniform in nationality and in economic 
status, would doubtless be somewhat moditied. 



MARKETING 



105 



By-Products, Dried and canned apples are important by- 
products of the apple industry. This is evident from Tables 
24, 25, and 26. Table 24 lists the quantities of apples and 
other fruits dried for purposes of comparison. Contrary to 
the general impression, enormous quantities of apples are 

TABLE 24 



Production of Dried Fruits 1923-37 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 





1923 


1929 


1935 


1937 


Apples 

Figs 

Prunes 

Raisins 

Pears 


pounds 
19,397,844 
54,029,042 

61,616,496 
245,786,104 
380,068,441 


pounds 
44,619,712 
43,089,530 
28,020,931 
35,849,539 
347,349,407 
421,203,596 


pounds 
71,257,536 
49,176,457 
44,716,293 
50,695,693 
473,600,870 
414,129,227 
14,098,736 
2,885,443 


pounds 
52,500,000 
44,000,000 
57,400,000 
27,000,000 
512,000,000 
580,000,000 
16,384,376 
3,748,769 


Other fruits . . . 


30,903,088 


18,565,900 


Totals. , 


791,801,215 


938,698,615 


1,120,560,255 


1,093,033,145 



Increase in total production, 1923-37, 38.0 percent. 

Increase in production of apples, 1923-37, 170.6 percent. 

Decrease in production of apricots, 1923—37, 18.5 percent. 

Increase in production of figs, 1929-37, 104.8 percent. 

Decrease in production of peaches, 1923-37, 56.1 percent. 

Increase in production of prunes, 1923-37, 108.3 percent. 

Increase in production of raisins, 1923—37, 52.6 percent. 

Increase in production of pears, 1935-37, 16.2 percent. 

dried, more than in the case of other tree fruits with the excep- 
tion of prunes, and the trend is strongly upward. Under 
normal conditions there is a good foreign outlet for them. 

Table 25 indicates how the canning of apples and the 
making of applesauce are increasing and the states most active 
in this connection. The Shenandoah-Cumberland region is a 



106 



HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



TABLE 25 

Canned Apples and Applesauce, Production by Principal States 

1921-38 



(National Canners' Association) 





1921* 


1929t 


1937 


1938 




in standaid cases 




68,092 


Included in "other 


states" 




50,987 


Included in "other 


states" 




38,078 


30,244 








301,855 


37,630 






Maryland, Pennsylvania, 










and Virginia 


202,985 


883,611 


3,285,814 


1,553,464 


Michigan 


141,705 


166,003 


30,009 


15,227 


New York 


601,237 


176,313 


1,523,705 


1,037,263 


Oregon 


279,751 


406,726 


280,777 


191,714 


Utah 


27,383 


Included in "other 


states" 


Washington 


439,969 


1,298,147 


658,024 


462,007 


Other states 


87,386 


593,877 


55,100 


22,500 


Totals 


2,239,428 


3,592,551 


5,833,429 


3,282,175 



* Does not include applesauce. 

t Statistics for 1929 do not include applesauce; 903,991 cases of applesauce were 
made in this year, but data upon states in which it was produced were not obtained and 
cannot now be secured. 



very important factor, as is 'Ne^^ York State. Table 26 gives 
a comparison of apples with other fruits. 

A study of all three tables indicates that the processing of 
fruits constitutes a tremendous and growing business. It was 
felt at one time that the widespread development of cold stor- 
age would reduce the by-products industry, perhaps eliminat- 
ing the drying phases of it. This has not happened to date. 

Vinegar and cider manufactured in factories and commer- 
cial establishments are of considerable importance. The value 



MARKETING 



107 



TABLE 26 



Packs of the More Important Fruits 
1921-38 

(National Canners' Association) 



Apples and 

Applesauce 

Apricots 

Blackberries 

Raspberries 

Cherries, red sour . 
Cherries, sweet .... 

Grapefruit 

Grapefruit juice . . . 

Peaches 

Pears 

Plums 

Prunes 

Grapes 

Figs 

Pineapple 

Pineapple juice. . . . 

Fruits for salad and 
cocktail 

Blueberries and 
huckleberries 

Gooseberries 

Loganberries 

Strawberries 

Olives 

Total 



1921 



2,239,428 



1,150,514 
499,414 



990,090 



5,881,327 
1,256,809 
206,046 
281,175 
54,210 

5,895,747 



51,851 
317,146 

675,000 



19,498,757 



1929 



1937 



1938 



in standard cases 



3,592,551 
903,991 

4,267,294 
844,066 
608,335 

1,123,855 
966,017 

1,174,823 
115,708 

8,723,622 

4,980,978 
171,044 

1,069,134 
131,542 
223,857 

9,210,240 



232,024 
44,260 
354,552 
403,204 
635,000 



39,776,097 



2,672,328 
3,161,101 
5,727,996 
493,218 
623,654 
2,471,982 
518,979 
4,279,240 
6,016,240 
13,992,040 
5,115,962 
288,532 
1,891,364 
121,859 
412,481 
10,922,883 
7,500,000 



4,408,805 

441,988 
57,195 
66,978 
126,051 
951,758 



72,262,634 



1,755,624 
1,526,551 
1,729,486 
534,248 
319,287 
1,694,813 
730,232 
3,645,697 
8,021,828 
10,401,016 
4,848,090 
70,086 
934,987 
93,532 
260,299 
12,203,012 
9,000,000 
(Estimate) 

2,880,269 

185,009 
47,287 

195,786 
94,860 

742,629 

61,914,628 



108 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



of such products was $10,634,000 in 1933; in 1938 it was 
$8,563,000 for 44 million gallons. Filtered and pasteurized 
apple juice has increased in popularity during the last few 
years. By manufacturing apple jelly, apple flakes, pectin 
extracts, apple butter, and some other by-products, apple out- 
lets have increased and the low grades appearing on the 
market have been correspondingly reduced. Every effort 
which takes this low-grade fruit off the fresh-fruit market 
would seem to be a movement in the right direction. 

ig) Consider Export Markets. The export market is of 
great importance to American growers. The proportion of the 
total crop absorbed by it is not great, but if kept at home it 
would constitute a surplus which would tend to demoralize 
home markets. The quantity exported varies with the size of 
the domestic crop and with the crops in Canada and Europe, 
particularly in England. Normally from 10 to 12 percent 
of the commercial apple crop is exported. In late years this 
has meant about 10 million bushels annually from the United 
States, though the amount does show substantial variation 
from year to year (Fig. 44) . Canadian apples are preferred, 
largely because the United Kingdom is the chief importer and 
gives preference to the products of a member of her family 
of nations. 

Australia and New Zealand ship apples to the BritisK 
Isles, but as their season is from April to July there is little 
competition with American apples. 

The British Isles ordinarily lead all other countries in 
imports by a wide margin. London, Liverpool, Glasgow, 
Manchester, Southampton, Hull, Bristol, and Cardiff are im- 
port centers. Transshipment to Ireland takes place from 
Liverpool and Glasgow. In normal years Germany, the Neth- 
erlands, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden have been good 
customers. 

The Central and South American countries import some 
apples. Argentina, formerly a substantial market, now grows 
her own apples in large part and restricts importations from 



MARKETING 



109 



the United States. Brazil buys some apples, Chile almost 
none. The entire population of South America is about 90 
million. Governments in recent years have not been too 
stable, trade restrictions are numerous and exacting, and do- 
mestic production is increasing. The outlook for increasing 
export markets in this direction is not promising. 



APPLES: U. S. EXPORTS BY TYPE OFCONTAINER, 1922-37 




922-23 •24-25.r- •26-27 



28-29 aO-ai •32-33 
YEAR BEGINNING JULY 



34-35 •36-37 •38-39 



{U,S.D.A.) 

Pig. 44. Total exports of apples from the United States have dropped 
sharply from the high levels reached in some years prior to 1932. Al- 
though exports from all regions are now at a lower level, the greatest 
relative decline has occurred in exports from the eastern areas which 
largely pack their export apples in barrels and baskets. 



The export outlook in any direction is not hopeful until 
international relations are stabilized and trade barriers 
removed. 

Export Requirements. Only standard grades and varieties 
are wanted. The smaller sizes are often in demand, being 
sold by the pound. The fruit must be firm and tightly packed. 
The packages must be stored carefully on board ship. Re- 
frigeration is necessary through the fall months. Ventilation 



110 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



of unrefrigerated cargoes is essential. The practice of dump- 
ing on European markets fruit which is of a grade and quality 
too poor to sell elsewhere and v/hich these markets do not 
want has been the chief obstacle to enlargement of demand. 

A steady, uniform, dependable supply of good fruit, hon- 
estly packed, is the greatest export need. 

Methods of Sale. Shipments may be sent to be sold at 
auctions, they may be sent on consignment to European firms, 
or f .o.b. sales may be made to representatives of foreign buyers. 
Most of the fruit is sold by auction. 

II. THE PEACH 

More than half the states in the Union produce peaches in 
commercial quantities (Table 27). Note that production from 

year to year is very stable 
in California but fluctu- 
ates widely in Georgia, 
Missouri, and in fact all 
other states. This is due 
largely to less equable cli- 
matic conditions in these 
states. The figures are 
somewhat misleading in 
that they do not bring out 
differences in size of the 
various states. Thus, New 
Jersey and Delaware, 
small in area, are really 
important producing 
states. 

Georgia begins the ship- 
ment of peaches to mar- 
ket in May, followed by 
California, North Carolina, and Texas. The season of harvest 
extends gradually northward until the peaches of Ohio, New 



May 



June 
Georgia 



July 



N. Carolina 



Texas 



Arkansas 



Aug. 



Tennessee 



New Jersey 



Illinois 



Washington 



Virginia 



Sept 



Oct 



Delaware and Maryland 



Utah 



Pennsylvania 



New York 



Ohio 



Michigan 



Fig. 45. Peaches: season of major 
shipment from the chief producing 
sections. From July 15 to October, 
the competition is severe in normal 
seasons. 



MARKETING 



111 



TABLE 27 
Peaches — Production by States 



fotate 


Average 
1927-36 


19o7 


1938 




1000 hu. 


1000 hu. 


1000 bu2 




22,135 


23,252 


20,835 




5,824 


2,730 


5,320 


North Carolina 


1,813 


1,984 


2,232 


Arkansas 


1,584 


2,288 


2,451 


Pennsylvania 


1,507 


2,673 


1,842 


Illinois 


1,424 


2,117 


1,425 


Michigan 


1,354 


2,652 


1,341 


New York 


1,348 


1,806 


1,134 


New Jersey 


1,330 


1,651 


1,172 


Alabama 


1,252 


990 


1,705 




1,219 


1,392 


964 


Tennessee ' 


1,214 


1,860 


586 


South Carolina 


1,095 


1,080 


1,515 


Washington 


1,019 


935 


1,428 


Colorado 


1,013 


1,533 


1,388 


Ohio 


876 


1,296 


481 


Virginia 


767 


1,599 


1,161 


Mississippi 


750 


474 


1,061 


Missouri 


672 


1,728 


116 


Utah 


534 


72 


564 




ACiA 

494 


l,U7o 




Indiana 


456 


402 


144 


Kentucky 


452 


1,369 


352 


Maryland 


374 


448 


352 


West Virginia 


299 


528 


184 




271 


398 


304 


Louisiana . 


240 


269 


325 


Connecticut 


172 


177 


140 


United States 


52,498 


59,724 


51,945 



*About 50 percent of California production are clingstone varieties used for canning, 
the remainder are freestone varieties used mainly for drying. 



112 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



York, and Michigan are sent to market in September, and a 
few late sorts are available in October (Fig. 45) . 

Elberta, the main crop peach in all sections other than Cali- 
fornia, is available from about the middle of July until late 
September. 

Harvesting begins with pruning, spraying, fertilizing, thin- 
ning, and general orchard care. The actual picking and pack- 
ing represent but final acts of an enterprise that has been in 
process since the pruner went forth to prune. 

Packages and other supplies should be ordered as soon as 
a reasonable idea of the extent of the crop can be determined. 
Delay in ordering usually means increased costs and may 
mean much difficulty in securing the packages on time. 

Operations : 

L Picking the fruit. 

2. Selecting packages. 

3. Packing. 

4. Loading cars. 

5. Storing. 

6. Canning and drying. 

7. Marketing through cooperative agencies. 

1. Picking the Fruit. Picking at the proper stage of ma- 
turity is of very great importance in the harvesting of the 
crop. The fruit which carries the finest color with large size 
and still reaches the consumer in sound condition commands 
a premium. With competition from producing sections so 
keen, it is in many seasons the only kind of fruit that will sell 
at a profit. 

Peaches should be picked when just mature enough to 
reach market in firm condition, but ready for consumption. 
This means that if the market is near by the fruit may be left 
longer on the trees than if a day or more must be spent in 
transit. 



PICKING THE FRUIT 



113 



White-fleshed peaches take on a creamy ground color as 
they approach the picking stage. Peaches with yellow flesh 
take on a lemon-yellow color away from the sun when ready 
for harvesting. For distant shipments, fruit must be picked 
before these color changes are too prominent, or the fruit will 
be soft on arrival. Beyond this, picking at the proper stage is 
a matter of experience and knowledge of the varieties. 

The length of the picking season will depend very largely on 
the weather: hot days bring the fruit on with a rush; cool days 
and nights retard it. In much of the peach belt, the weather 
may be warm at harvest time and the grower must be prepared 
to handle the entire crop quickly. The Elberta season usually 
covers a period of seven to ten days, being reduced in hot, dry 
seasons to two or three days. 

Several pickings should be made from each tree. '^Spot" or 
"color'' picking is a standard practice with peaches; it takes 
into account both size and color. The number of pickings 
necessary to secure the fruit in the best possible condition to 
sell at the maximum price depends on the season and the varie- 
ties. It is usually necessary to go over the trees three or four 
times, and some successful growers normally make five or six 
pickings. 

Pick the fruit by taking it gently in the palm of the hand 
and twisting easily sidewise, so as not to tear the flesh about 
the stem. Place it carefully in the receptacle. Never press the 
fruit with thumb or fingers to test its firmness, or bruising will 
result. 

Pickers are engaged by the day under supervision of a 
competent foreman, or to pick by the package, the former 
being the more satisfactory method since, though speed is not 
lost sight of; a greater premium is placed on careful handling. 
Pickers can usually harvest from 50 to 100 bushels daily, 
depending upon size of crop on trees, height of trees, amount 
of "spot'' picking necessary^ and other factors. 

Haul the fruit at once on low spring wagons or motor trucks 
to some center for packing. This may be an open shed in the 



114 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



orchard, or a more pretentious and permanent establishment. 
There is no time to lose, and the packing arrangements must be 
adequate for the crop to be handled. 

Picking Equipjiient. Peach trees are headed low. Much of 
the fruit can be picked from the ground. A short step-ladder 
will suffice for the remainder. 

Round-stave i^-bushel or %-bushel baskets, padded and 
with wood or wire handles, are used extensively as picking 
receptacles. The fruit is carried in them to the packing house. 
Baskets may be carried under one arm by using a wide strap 
passing over the shoulder, with large hooks to attach to the 
basket. This permits use of both hands for picking and avoids 




(Har r i s oil's X ur series) 

Fig. 46. Three common packages for the peach: from left to right, 
bushel basket, Georgia carrier, Jersey basket. 



the temptation to set the basket on the ground or to attach it 
to a branch at a distance and drop the fruit into it. The strap 
may be released easily when the basket is full, and attached to 
another. 

Drop-bottom baskets, or sacks of canvas stretched on wire 
frames, are coming into extensive use in some sections. The 
fruit is emptied from them into field boxes holding one bushel 
and taken to the packing center. Large pails may be used. 

Under the system of wide planting^ liberal fertilization, and 
moderate pruning now employed, an average yield of 2i/2 to 
314 bushels per tree per year may be expected from Elberta. 
Some varieties exceed these figures. 



SELECTING PACKAGES 



115 



Elberta bears little the third year and moderately at four 
years. Some varieties, as Greensboro, may bear marketable 
quantities the third year. 

2. Selecting Packages. The bushel basket is gaining favor 
as a market package in most sections (Fig. 46) . It is the pre- 
vailing package in Ohio, Michigan, New York, Texas, Mis- 
souri, Maryland, Virginia, and Delaware. It is used exten- 
sively in Georgia and other sections, especially for the firmer 
varieties, including Elberta. The ease and rapidity with which 
it may be packed commend it. 

The tub-type bushel basket is used increasingly. Round- 
bottom baskets are also used extensively, and half-bushel 
baskets to some extent. 

The Georgia carrier is suitable for some varieties and in 
some markets. On the whole, however, it is being displaced by 
the bushel basket. It is especially desirable for tender varie- 
ties of fine appearance and high quality and for those shipped 
long distances. It is used quite extensively in the Georgia belt, 
and to a small extent in some Maryland, Delaware, and Jersey 
peach sections. 

The carrier is 22 inches long by 11 inches wide and 10 to 
10^4 inches deep, inside measurements, holding two layers of 
4-quart till baskets, three baskets in each layer or six per 
carrier. Ends, sides, and top are each of one piece. The bas- 
kets are 11 inches by 5i/^ inches wide at bottom and 7% inches 
wide at top, preferably with round corners. A wood divider 
separates the layers and relieves the fruit in the lower layer 
from the pressure above. When packed, the carrier weighs 
from 44 to 50 pounds. The carrier comes from the factory 
'^knocked down'^ and must be assembled by the grower. 

A common package is still the Jersey or Delaware 16-quart 
splint basket, though the capacity sometimes varies. It is 
acceptable for local trade, but is not satisfactory for other 
markets. It is not sufficiently strong or rigid in itself to afford 
much protection to a fruit that needs considerable. It is easily 
upset. It is too easily tossed or thrown about, for there is such 



116 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



a thing as having a package that is too easily handled. If used 
for local trade, a pink or red tarlatan covering lends attrac- 
tiveness. A rigid wood cover is also available. 

The Climax basket is also found in local trade. The box is 
used in Utah, Colorado, and on the Pacific Coast. It is 5 by 
11^^ by 181/^ inches, inside measurements. 

3. Packing. For extensive orchards, packing houses are 
necessary. In southern sections these are in the orchards or on 
railroad sidings adjacent to them, cutting the haulage to a 
minimum. In other sections, as New York, they are operated 
in connection with cold-storage plants, or the houses used for 
packing apples are also used for peaches. 

A two-story frame house with the top floor for storage is 
typical in the South. The lower floor where the packing is 
done is usually open, with a covered driveway. 

The fruit is delivered at one side and moves across the 
house in the packing operations, going into cars at the opposite 
side. 

Matters of lighting and arrangement of equipment must 
receive careful study. Mechanical devices doing effective siz- 
ing are available and are reaching a high state of perfection. 
They should provide opportunity for sorting the fruit before it 
goes onto the sizing devices. Mechanical conveyors to save 
labor are essential. 

Packing the Bushel Basket. The common style of pack in 
the bushel basket is the jumble pack with the top layer faced. 
Proceed as in packing apples in baskets as indicated in Fig. 24. 
Corrugated paper pads should be placed under the covers, and 
the cover may be supported by a wooden peg extending from 
the bottom. Fancy fruit is sometimes placed in layers through 
the entire basket. 

Packing the Georgia Carrier. The fruit is packed in the 
baskets according to a definite plan, the process being very 
similar to that of packing apples in boxes, the alternate or 
diagonal pack being used as illustrated in Fig. 47. A good 
packer under favorable conditions will pack 150 or more 



LOADING CARS 



117 



crates per day. The fruit should be graded as to size and color. 
Two or three grades are usually made, the same grade being 




{New Jersey Exp. Station) 
Fig. 47. Showing the method of packing the 
baskets in the Georgia carrier. 

packed throughout any given package. The carrier, when 
packed, should show a decided spring or bulge to hold the 
fruit in place and prevent bruising (Fig. 
48). It is loaded on the side. 

An excelsior pad is placed under the 
cover. Corrugated paper pads are some- 
times used, but afford less protection. 
The package should be labeled. 

Grading Laws. Peaches are packed in 
most states in accordance with United 
States grades. Many of the states have 
adopted these federal grades as their own. 
In the interest of stabilizing the market 
and providing a dependable basis for 
•doing business, peach growers should fol- 
low the specifications for such grades care- 
fully in packing their fruit. 

4. Loading Cars. Fresh fruit shipped bulge when the Geor- 
several hundred miles should be placed in gia carrier is packed, 
well-iced refrigerator cars. Shipping in- 
structions on bills of lading usually require that the bunkers 
be kept full of ice to destination. As much as 2 percent of salt 




( New Jersey Exp. S tation) 

Fig. 48. The cover 
should show a pro- 
nounced spring or 



118 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



may be specified to reduce the temperature further. Life 
processes and changes take place very rapidly at high tempera- 
tures, and even under refrigeration the fruit in the top layer 
of packages in a car will go down much more rapidly than that 
at the bottom. 

Pre-cooling, or cooling before shipment, is now practiced 
to some extent in hot weather and for shipment to distant 
markets. The fruit is packed quickly after picking. It is 
cooled down to about 40° F. either in a central station or in 
special chambers in cold storages, or by forcing cold air through 
the packed car. The former process gives much better results 
and is more economical. The fruit is thus reduced to a tem- 
perature at the outset as low as or lower than would be attained 
by former methods after the car had been long in transit. The 
end-to-end offset style of loading bushel baskets so that the 
weight of fruit is on the baskets rather than on the fruit is best. 
The baskets are loaded three tiers high, giving 360 or more 
baskets per car. About 476 Georgia carriers, loaded on their 
sides, are placed in a car. Most railroad companies have 
complete instructions and diagrams for loading. It is well to 
secure and follow them. 

5. Storing. Hard and firm peaches, not overgrown, may be 
held in cold storage for two to three weeks. Elberta has been 
held eight weeks when stored immediately after picking, but 
the risk is great. If held too long, the fruit loses flavor and 
in any case must be consumed quickly after removal from 
storage. The proper storage temperature is from 30 to 32° F. 

Owing to the progressive ripening from south to north of all 
varieties, the storage of peaches seldom presents an advantage. 
In past years this practice had merit in giving the grower an 
opportunity to wait for a favorable market. This advantage 
is almost entirely dissipated now as the various sections pro- 
vide a continuous supply throughout the season. 

6. Canning and Drying. Canning factories take large 
quantities of peaches in some Eastern sections. In California 
the fruit is both canned and dried. Most of the work is done 



MARKETING THROUGH COOPERATIVE AGENCIES 119 



by machinery, including pitting the fruit. The trade de- 
mands a firm yellow peach for canning, and a clingstone 
variety holds its shape better than a freestone sort. A red 
color about the pit discolors the syrup and is not wanted. 

The canning industry in California has reached very large 
proportions, 90 percent of the pack being made from yellow 
clingstone varieties, such as Tuscan, Orange, Peaks, and 
Phillips. 

In the East, thus far the canning factories have taken the 
surplus yellow peaches of several kinds. More attention needs 
to be paid to the selection and development of proper canning 
types. 

The evaporation or drying of peaches is practiced on a 
large scale in California, where the climate is very favorable 
for this purpose. The dried peach is an excellent fruit product. 
It is questionable whether Eastern sections where it would be 
necessary to work under cover, with artificial heat, can ever 
compete in this field. 

7. Marketing through Cooperative Agencies. The peach, 
like the apple, is packed and marketed extensively through co- 
operative organizations, the grower being relieved of all re- 
sponsibility after he delivers the fruit at the packing house. 

AH the advantages of cooperative apple marketing hold 
here plus the fact that the peach is a fruit that must be mar- 
keted without delay. A large enterprise devoting all its atten- 
tion to packing and marketing should on the whole and over 
a period of years perform this service better for a group of 
individuals than each man could do it for himself. The large 
grower may constitute an exception. 

Custom sheds where packing is done at a price which covers 
cost plus a small profit to the operator have given good service 
in some sections. The grower may or may not handle the 
sale of his own crop. 



120 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



III. THE PEAR 

The pear must be picked while still hard and firm. Ripened 
on the tree, it is likely to be coarse and stringy or sometimes 
gritty, and the center may turn brown before the exterior 
shows signs of deterioration. Out of storage, and with the 
exception of certain winter sorts, it reaches its maximum con- 
dition and passes on to softening and decay quickly, thus again 
emphasizing the necessity for picking at the proper time and 




(r. S. D. A.) 

Fig. 49. Picking Bartlett pears in an Oregon orchard. Note clean cul- 
tivation and picking equipment. 



for prompt handling. Table 28 indicates the chief producing 
areas. 

1. Picking. In practice pick pears while green in color, but 
with a decided tendency toward a lighter shade. If the fruit 
is to go into consumption immediately, it may be permitted to 
hang longer than if it must be held for some time. The fruit 
often makes a marked increase in size during the late stages of 
development, and the grower will wish to get the benefit of this 
increase so far as he may without incurring loss in other direc- 



CANNING AND DRYING 



121 



tions. The sugar content is higher in fruit left longer on the 
trees than in that picked earlier. Pears picked too green lack 
flavor and are likely to shrivel instead of ripening. Shriveling 
occurs because the lenticels in the skin of the fruit are not 
corked over, so that evaporation takes place rapidly. 

When pears picked at too immature a stage finally ripen, 
not only are they lacking in sugar content and quality, but also 
they break down and decay very quickly. Pears picked at a 
later stage remain in good condition for a much longer time 
after softening. Bartletts intended for cold storage or for 
canning should be a "light green to turning.'' Pears picked 
very late and canned have an unattractive, chalky color, a 
cloudy syrup, and an insipid flavor. 

Experience and careful attention each season as the crop 
approaches maturity are necessary to determine the proper 
picking stage. 

Picking methods, equipment and containers resemble those 
for the apple. 

2. Packages and Packing. Packages for the pear are not 
well standardized. The bushel basket, the standard pear box, 
and the half-box are all used by some growers and for some 
varieties. 

The pear box and half-box in which each specimen is 
wrapped are used in the West; the bushel basket and Eastern 
apple box, in other sections. Bushel crates are also used for 
canning factories and for storage. Climax baskets are found 
on local markets. Placing the pears in layers and facing them 
so improves the appearance of the pack as often to make the 
operations worth while, when the fruit is sold in the fresh state. 

On account of the shape of the fruit, grading machines have 
not found as much favor as for apples and peaches, but peach 
graders are used to some extent, as well as machines that size 
by weight, for sizing pears. 

3. Canning and Drying. Canning factories in some sec- 
tions take much of the fruit, providing a dependable outlet 
and stabilizing prices. The fruit must be hand-picked and 



122 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



TABLE 28 



Pears — Production by States 1937-39 * 



Statp 


IQ.^7 


1Q3S 


X i/Oy 


V cl <3lgt; 




WOO hi] 


1000 hij 


1000 hii 


lUUU lrU/» 


\,fi 1 i f nrn i ft 


Q 334 


11 751 

X X, f KfX 




10 47^ 


\\fc\ an in cHt»ti 




500 

\JjKi\J\J 


77Q 






3 550 


4 24Q 


4 22Q 


4 oin 


Npw Vork 


1,305 


1 960 

X, kJ\J\J 


1 749 


1 672 

x,u < ^ 




1,380 


1,411 


1 354 




Ohio 


992 


634 


Q56 




T*pn n civl vn n 1 a 


ox < 




«7XO 


7Q8 


Tllinois 


999 

\J xj \J 


413 


724 


712 


Indiana 


630 


366 


527 


508 




412 


440 




420 


lVriQ<3m TP! 


684 


66 




SQ2 


IVT 1 c; Qi 7-»-ni 


157 


462 




^2^ 


Virginia 


416 


334 


189 


313 


Georgia 


244 


404 


281 


310 


Alabama 


211 


383 


313 


303 


North CaroHna 


281 


364 


230 


292 


Kentucky 


411 


135 


206 


251 


Tennessee 


284 


186 


244 


238 


Arkansas 


214 


156 


211 


194 


Kansas 


282 


56 


151 


163 


All others 


1,345 


1,546 


1,335 


1,409 


United States 


29,548 


32,473 


30,910 


30,984 



* Source of date: United States Department of Agriculture. 



carefully handled, and small sizes are not wanted. Bartlett 
and Kieffer are the varieties in greatest demand for canning. 

Pears are dried on the Pacific Coast, but not in the East 
at the present time. 

4. Storage and Refrigeration. Bartlett and other standard 
varieties keep well in cold storage, if properly handled. No 
time should be lost after the fruit is picked in getting it cooled 



YIELDS 



123 



down and into storage. For best results, Bartlett pears should 
be held at a temperature of 28 to 30"^ F. and Bosc at 30 to 
32° F. Fruit picked in proper condition may be held several 
months. The desirable cold-storage period for Bartletts in- 
tended for canning does not extend beyond 60 days. In any 
event Bartletts intended for canning later or for the fresh 
market should be removed from the storage before they ac- 
quire a pronounced yellow shade, this color change being a 
dependable danger signal. When removed from storage, the 
fruit should be permitted to ripen at a temperature of 60 to 
70° F. in order to develop the highest quality. 

Shipment in refrigerator cars is usually necessary except 
for late varieties. 

Pre-cooling is advisable for long shipments coming from 
sections where the fruit has poor carrying qualities. 

5. Export Markets. The export demand is not large. 
Canada takes a considerable quantity. Some fruit goes to 
Central America and Brazil, some also to the British Isles 
and Continental Europe. The European countries take 
mostly the boxed pears of the West Coast states. 

6. Yields. Extensive records of an authentic nature on 
pear yields in the Eastern states are not available, but the 
trees are less productive and come into bearing more slowly 
than in the Pacific Coast states. Bartletts yield 140 to 160 
bushels of packed fruit per acre on the average, Seckel about 
125 bushels, and Kieffer about 210 bushels. 

In California, Bartletts reach commercial production at 
6 to 7 years ; at 12 years and thereafter, 10 tons or 400 boxes 
per acre is a fair average yield, larger yields being quite 
common. Bosc will yield about 300 boxes per acre; Anjou, 
otherwise desirable, is a very light and variable cropper; 
Clairgeau yields about the same as Bartlett, and Winter 
Nelis produces about 300 boxes per acre, on the average. 



124 



HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



IV. THE PLUM 

1, Picking. The fruit should be picked before it is fully 
ripe. jMany varieties when ripe are soft, bruise easily, and 
go down quickly. Brown rot infection is liable to occur in 
humid sections and may wipe out most of the crop if the 
fruit is left on the trees too long. 

On the other hand, there has been a tendency to pick the 
fruit before it has much flavor, and these partly grown plums 
have seriously injured the demand for a really fine fruit. For 
jam and jelly the fruit should not be fully ripe, but for dessert 
purposes and for canning more mature fruit is much to be 
preferred. The sugar content, color, and quality are much 
better. The custom is to pick the Japanese or Salicina 
varieties, as Burbank and Abundance, well in advance of 
maturity. Such thick-fleshed varieties as Italian prune may 
be left much longer; in fact, they are still unripe for some time 
after they have colored well. 

Picking equipment and methods are much the same as for 
other fruits. Care should be exercised not to tear the flesh of 
the fruit or to destroy the natural bloom. If the fruit is 
jerked in a direct pull from the spur, the stem will be torn 
out and the flesh ruptured. The picker should give a slight 
upward turn so that the stem separates from the spur and 
remains attached to the fruit. Tin pails or small baskets 
are suitable picking receptacles. 

It is necessary to make from two to five pickings, de- 
pending on the variety and season, to secure the fruit in the 
most favorable condition for market. Some varieties, in- 
cluding Italian prune, take on considerable color after pick- 
ing. In the West, prunes for drying are shaken from the tree 
by jarring the branches with padded poles and the fruit is 
picked up from the ground. Some American plums are shaken 
from the tree, dropping on canvas or cloth covers spread on 
the ground. 



PRUNES 



125 



Table 29 indicates the areas of commercial production 
of both plums and prunes, whether fresh or dried. There 
are, however, many local areas in other states w^here plums 
may be and are grown to advantage. 

2. Packing. For the canning trade and for jam, the bushel 
basket is the standard package. For the retail market, climax 
baskets of varying sizes with slat covers are used. 

Plums from California are packed in crates holding four 
baskets each. Each basket is about 8 inches square on top, 
6^ inches square on the bottom, and 4 inches deep, inside 
measurements. The sides are therefore sloping. The baskets 
are made of thin veneer with a strip of tin fitted about the 
top edges. Tissue paper is laid in the bottoms and sometimes 
paper or veneer dividers or ''shims^' are placed between layers. 
The fruit is packed much like peaches in till baskets or 
apples in boxes. 

California and Idaho plums come East in large quantities 
, under refrigeration. They are a considerable factor in the 
market. 

3. Storing. Plums may be held for extended periods in 
cold storage, if they are free from brown rot, handled care- 
fully, and put in storage at once after picking. The extent 
of the storage period depends on the variety but ranges from 
three to ten or twelve weeks. 

The best storage temperature seems to be about 32"^ F. 

4. Prunes. A prune is a plum with flesh thick and meaty 
enough to make it an acceptable product when dried. Prunes 
in the East are grown for canning or for the retail market, and 
harvesting methods do not differ from those for plums. 

In the Pacific Coast states prunes are dried, chiefly by the 
sun in California, and by artificial heat in Oregon and Wash- 
ington. This is a distinct and highly specialized phase of 
fruit growing not treated in detail here. It is not probable 
that other sections will ever compete in this branch of the 
industry with the Pacific Coast, where heavy yields and favor- 
able climatic conditions for drying are pronounced. 



126 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



TABLE 29 



Plums and Prunes — Production and Use by States 



Crop and State 


Average 
1927-36 


1937 


1938 




Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Plums: 


Fresh Basis 










5,600 


5,800 


2,900 


California 


60,900 


66,000 


64,000 


2 States 


66,500 


71,800 


66,900 


Prunes: 








Fresh Use: 








Idaho 


19,470 


12,900 


15,400 


Washington 


14,520 


10,400 


16,200 


Oregon 


14,420 


11,000 


15,000 


3 States 


48,410 


34,300 


46,600 


Canned: * 








Washington 


3,330 


4,500 


3,000 


Oregon 


11,270 


22,500 


18,000 


2 States 


14,600 


27,000 


21,000 


Dried: f 


Dry Basis 










3,780 


700 


1,100 


Oregon 


25,250 


6,500 


15,000 


Cahfornia 


196,200 


249,000 


221,000 1 


3 States 


225,230 


256,200 


237, loot 



* Includes small quantities for cold packing. 

t To convert California dried prunes to fresh basis, multiply by 2 J^. In Washington 
and Oregon, the ratio ranges from 3 to 4 (fresh) to 1 dried. 

X Includes standard and substandard prunes held in reserve pools. In addition to 
the 221,000 tons of dried prunes, an equivalent of 60,000 tons (dry basis) was not 
harvested because of market conditions and 4.000 tons (dry basis) were lost in the 
drying process. 



THE CHERRY 



127 



5. Yields. In the East 3 to 5 tons per acre may be ex- 
pected from a mature orchard in good condition, or 1 to 1^2 
bushels per tree. The average for all orchards is much less. 
Prune trees often yield 2 to 3 bushels per tree. The Japanese 
or Salicina varieties come into bearing at 3 to 5 years of age; 
the Domestic varieties, about 2 years later. The native 
American plums require a longer period. 

On the Pacific Coast the trees tend to come into bearing 
earlier and to produce larger crops than elsewhere. 



V. THE CHERRY 

The picking period for cherries is usually short. It is 
largely determined by the weather, except in the Pacific Coast 
states. Varieties also differ greatly in length of picking 
season. The soft-fleshed, juicy kinds mature and deteriorate 
rapidly. The firmer and drier varieties give the grower more 
time to handle them. Among the sour cherries, English 
Morello is noted for the extended period that it will hang on 
the tree. Some growers in the East have found that, after 
being dusted lightly with sulphur just before picking, the 
fruit will hang much longer without breaking down, because 
of the prevention of brown rot infection. 

Table 30 indicates the regions of commercial cherry pro- 
duction in the United States. The Pacific Coast states are 
the heaviest producers of sweet cherries, though New York 
and Michigan have substantial plantings. The latter states, 
with Wisconsin and Pennsylvania, produce the bulk of the 
sour cherries, mostly of the Montmorency variety. 

Most sour cherries go to market without further grading 
after picking. Sweet cherries and fancy lots of sour cherries 
should be run by putting small quantities on burlap packing 
frames or tables and sorting carefully by hand. Women do 
this work extensively. 

Sour cherries are seldom faced, but sweet cherries of 



128 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



TABLE 30 



Cherries — Production, Including Sweet and Sour, by States 



State 


Average 
1927-36 


1937 


1938 




1 OTIS 


1 OTIS 


1 OTIS 




17,275 


21,750 


16,360 




2,188* 


1,770 


1,440 


Sour 


16,849* 


19,980 


14,920 




7,308* 


9,890 


6,560 


Ohio 


4,499* 


7,340 


3,630 




26,838 


35,840 


14,940 






2,287 


2,240 






33,553 


12,700 




7,664 


13,500 


9,440 


Montana 


474 


340 


470 




2,775 


1,600 


2,490 


Colorado 


3,300 


3,460 


5,280 


Utah 


3,108 


2,100 


4,270 


Washington 


14,230 


13,500 


25,500 


Oregon 


12,780 


13,800 


21,400 




18,420 


21,600 


28,800 


12 states 


116,309 


144,720 


139,140 



* Short-time average. 



fancy varieties are turned stems under so that the top of the 
package is very attractive. 

In large orchards in some sections, movable packing 
houses, mounted on skids, are used. These are hauled from 
place to place through the orchard as picking progresses. 

Delivery is usually made to the canning factory in bushel 
or half-bushel baskets without sorting or grading the fruit. 
Eight-pound climax baskets are used for this purpose in some 
sections. Payment is made by the pound, often on contracts 
made in advance. 



I 



YIELDS 



129 



1. Selling. Cherries are sold through the usual market 
channels. Fruit from the Pacific Coast is handled through 
cooperative organizations ; such associations also function in 
Wisconsin and Michigan districts. Some shipments of cases 
by express difect to the consumer and retailer occur. Sales 
of larger quantities are often made on track at the shipping 
point. 

A few cherries from the Pacific Coast appearing on the 
market very early in the season are shipped, in express cars, 
in ice chests holding 10 to 12 standard boxes. Later ship- 
ments are made in refrigerator cars. 

2. Cold Storage. Sour cherries, as Montmorency, in prime 
condition will keep for about two weeks in cold storage. 
Beyond this point they are likely to shrivel. Sweet cherries 
of the black varieties may be held longer^ sometimes four 
weeks, though this is variable with the variety and the district 
where grown. The light-colored sweet varieties soon discolor. 
The proper storage temperature for cherries is about 32° F. 

3. Frozen Fruit. Cherries for pies, soda fountains, etc., 
are increasingly stored in the frozen state. They are cooled 
in vats of water and ice, pitted by machine, and packed either 
with or without sugar in barrels, tubs, pails, or cardboard 
containers covered with paraffin. They are frozen at tem- 
peratures around zero and then held in a frozen condition 
until used. 

4. Yields. In the canning sections of the East, 3 to 4 
tons per acre of sour cherries is a good yield, 6 tons are occa- 
sionally secured, and larger yields are recorded. 

Figure 50 indicates the average yield now obtained from 
Montmorency cherry trees of different ages in Michigan. 
Minor irregularities in the graph should be disregarded, and 
the general trend as indicated by the heavy line should be 
noted. The period from 17 to 25 years is most productive, 
but at best exceeds only slightly 50 pounds per tree, or some- 
thing over 5000 pounds per acre. These figures include 
orchards on good and poor soils, in good and poor locations. A 



130 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



good orchard in the proper location should do much better. 
Indeed, the statement is made that ^^substantial profits can be 
realized only where production costs per pound can be kept 
low by obtaining yields well over the general average of 50 
pounds per tree/' It is interesting to note that orchards 
located under favorable conditions and receiving good care 
were bearing profitable crops at ages much in excess of 25 
years. 

70| r 1 \ r 



60 



^50 



40 



20 



y7 



loi 



5 10 15 20 25 

Age of Trees in Years 

(Mich. State College) 

Fig. 50. Yields obtained from Montmorency cherry trees at different 

ages in Michigan. 



Sweet cherries yield less than sour but as a rule bring 
a higher price. In the Pacific Coast section sweet cherries 
yield much more heavily than in the East. 

A critical point in cherry production is the ability to 
mobilize a sufficient number of pickers in a short period. The 
prospective grower will take this into account in making his 
plans, and the grower already in the business will prepare 
carefully for the harvest period. Among sour cherries Early 
Richmond, Montmorency, and English Morello ripen in the 
order given. Girls are often hired for picking. Some large 



PICKING 



131 



growers have established camps in which pickers may live 
during the harvest season. 

5. Picking, Fruit that goes to the retail market is picked 
with the stems on and before it is fully ripe. Since the fruit 
improves markedly in size and appearance in the later stages 
of maturity, it is advisable not to pick sooner than necessary 
to reach the market in good condition. The picker grasps 
the stems, rather than the fruit, taking care not to break off 
the spurs or the buds. Some growers of fruit for a high-class 
trade prefer to use shears to clip the stems. Fancy cherries, 
especially the sweet varieties, must be handled with the utmost 
care, since they readily show the effects of bruising. Fruit 
for market can be picked only when the weather is dry, as wet 
cherries mold and rot quickly. 

Sour-cherry trees are usually low enough so that the fruit 
not reached from the ground may be picked from a tripod lad- 
der. For higher-growing sweet varieties the usual orchard 
ladders also may be needed. Picking receptables may be 
5- to 10-quart pails or baskets holding from 6 to 10 pounds. 
Straps run through the handles and tied about the waist, or 
books for hanging the receptacle on the branches, permit the 
use of both hands for picking. Pickers may be paid by the 
day or piece. 

The quantity picked in a day depends upon the size of the 
crop, the type of tree, and the proficiency of the picker, varying 
from 100 to 300 pounds per day in most sections. Probably 
200 pounds is an average when the trees are carrying good 
crops. Women and girls make good pickers. 

Large quantities of cherries go to the canner. For this 
purpose the fruit is permitted to hang until fully ripe. It 
should be stripped from the trees without stems, if it is to be 
canned at once, since this saves the cost of stemming. 
However, such fruit will go down almost immediately after 
picking and must be processed without delay. 

Some growers sell their whole crop to juice manufacturers 
' or to packers of frozen fruit. 



132 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 

For canning purposes, only one picking is made as a rule. 
For market, several pickings may be necessary, the number 
depending on the variety and the season. 

6. Packing. The 24- and 32-quart crates such as are used 
for berries are common shipping packages, particularly for 
sour cherries. Wisconsin uses largely the 16-quart crate, as do 
some other sections. The climax grape basket, holding from 
4 to 12 quarts, is also a popular package on some markets. 
In New Jersey 16- and 20-quart baskets are used extensively. 
Western sweet cherries are packed for Eastern markets in 
8- or 10-pound boxes, or flats. 

VI. THE QUINCE 

1. Picking. The quince is tender and shows bruises readily. 
It should be picked carefully into padded baskets or pails, 
when the fruit changes in ground color from deep green to a 
lighter shade. 

The fruit is used chiefly for jellies, for which it is very 
popular, for jams, and to some extent for baking and canning. 
It is frequently combined with other fruits in various prepara- 
tions to lend a distinctive flavor. 

2. Packing. The apple barrel is sometimes used, but is 
too large a package for so tender a fruit. Climax grape 
baskets holding from 8 to 12 quarts are desirable packages. 
The bushel basket and the Eastern apple box should make 
good packages. 

3. Storage. Though commonly sold in the fall, the quince, 
if mature but hard and carefully handled, may be held in cold 
storage for several months and in common storage for a shorter 
period. Green, immature fruit scalds readily in storage, and 
fruit affected with scab is not a good storage risk. No 
experimental work to determine proper storage temperatures 
has been done, but prevailing opinion indicates that the fruit 
should be held at a somewhat higher temperature than most ' 
fruits, probably about 35° F. 



GENERAL INFORMATION 133 

4. Yields. Some fruit will be borne at five and six years 
of age, but a commercial crop cannot be expected before the 
trees are eight to ten years old. A half-bushel per tree is 
a good crop; in certain years the average may reach a bushel 
per tree and individual trees may produce in excess of two 
bushels. 

The tree is long of life, unless cut off by fire blight or other 
factors — from 25 to 50 years, depending on conditions. 

GENERAL INFORMATION 

I. OFFICIAL U. S. STANDARDS FOR THE INSPECTION 

OF APPLES 

Grade Requirements 

U. S. Fancy shall consist of apples of one variety which are mature- 
but not overripe, carefully handpicked, clean, fairly well formed; free 
from decay, internal browning, internal breakdown, scald, freezing in- 
jury, unhealed broken skins, and bruises (except those incident to proper 
handling and packing), and visible water core. The apples shall also be 
free from damage caused by russeting, sunburn, spray bum, limb rubs, 
hail, drought spot, scars, disease, insects, or mechanical or other means. 
Each apple of this grade shall have the amount of color specified herein- 
after for the variety. (See Tolerances and Condition after storage or 
transit.) 

U. S. No. 1. The requirements for this grade are the same as U. S.- 
Fancy except that less color is required for all varieties except yellow and 
green varieties, for whi-ch the requirements for both grades are the same. 
Apples of this grade shall be of one variety, mature but not overripe, 
carefully handpicked, clean, fairly well formed; free from decay, inter- 
nal browning, internal breakdown, scald, freezing injury, unhealed broken 
skins, and bruises (except those incident to proper handling and pack- 
ing), and visible water core. The apples shall also be free from damage 
caused by russeting, sunburn, spray burn, limb rubs, hail, drought spot, 
scars, disease, insects, or mechanical or other means. Each apple of 
this grade shall have the amount of color specified hereinafter for the 
variety. (See Tolerances and Condition after storage or transit.) 

U. S. Commercial shall consist of apples of one variety which meet 
the requirements of U. S No. 1 except as to color. This grade is pro-- 



134 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



vided for apples which are mature but which do not have sufficient 
color to meet the specifications of U. S. No. 1. (See Tolerances and 
Condition after storage or transit.) 

U. S. No. 1 Early shall consist of apples of one variety which meet^ 
the requirements of U. S. No. 1 except as to color and maturity. Apples ' 
of this grade may have no red color and need not be mature. This 
grade is provided for early varieties only, such as Oldenburg (Duchess 
of Oldenburg), Gravenstein, Lowland Raspberry (Liveland Raspberry), 
Red June, Summer Hagloe, Twenty Ounce, Wealthy, Williams, Bailey 
Sweet, Bietigheimer, and other varieties which ripen at the same period 
and which are often used for cooking rather than for eating out of hand. 
(See Tolerances and Condition after storage or transit.) 

U. S. Utility shall consist of apples of one variety which are mature 
but not overripe, carefully handpicked, not seriously deformed; free 
from decay, internal browning, internal breakdown, scald, freezing in- 
jury, and unhealed broken skins. The apples shall also be free from 
serious damage caused by dirt or other foreign matter, bruises, russet- 
ing, sunburn, spray burn, limb rubs, hail, drought spot, scars, visible 
water core, disease, insects, or mechanical or other means. (See Toler- 
ances and Condition after storage or transit.) 

U. S. Utility Early shall consist of apples of one variety which meet 
the requirements of U. S. Utility except as to maturity. Apples of this 
grade need not be mature. This grade is provided for early varieties 
only, such as Oldenburg (Duchess of Oldenburg), Gravenstein, Lowland 
Raspberry (Liveland Raspberry), Red June, Summer Hagloe, Twenty 
Ounce, Wealthy, Williams, Bailey Sweet, Bietigheimer, and other varie- 
ties which ripen at the same period and which are often used for cooking 
rather than for eating out of hand. (See Tolerances and Condition after 
storage or transit.) 

Combination Grades. Combinations of the above grades may also 
be used as follows: 

Combination U. S. Fancy and U. S. No. 1. 
Combination U. S. No. 1 and U. S. Commercial. 
Combination U. S. No. 1 and U. S. UtiHty. 

Combinations other than these are not provided for in connection 
with the United States apple grades. When combination grades are 
packed, at least 50 per cent of the appbs in any container shall meet 
the requirements of the higher grade in the combination. (See Toler- 
ances and Condition after storage or transit.) 

U. S. Hail Grade shall consist of apples which meet the requirements 
of U. S. No. 1 except that hail marks where the skin has not been 



GENERAL INFORMATION 



135 



broken and well-healed hail marks where the skin has been broken 
shall be permitted provided the apples are fairly well formed. (See 
Tolerances and Condition after storage or transit.) 

Unclassified shall consist of apples which are not graded in con- 
formity with any of the foregoing grades. 

Color 

In addition to the foregoing requirements for U. S. Fancy and U. S. 
No. 1 each apple of these grades must have the percentage of color 
shown in the table on page 136. 

For the solid red varieties the percentage stated refers to the area 
of the surface which must be covered with a good shade of solid red 
characteristic of the variety, except that an apple having color of a 
lighter shade of solid red or striped red than that considered as good 
shade of red characteristic of the variety may be admitted to a grade, 
provided it has sufficient additional area covered so that the apple has 
as good an appearance as one with the minimum percentage of good 
red characteristic of the variety required for the grade. 

For the striped red varieties the percentage stated refers to the area 
of the surface in which the stripes of good shade of red characteristic of 
the variety shall predominate over the stripes of lighter red, green, or 
yellow. However, an apple having color of a lighter shade than that 
considered as good shade of red characteristic of the variety may be 
admitted to a grade, provided it has sufficient additional area covered 
so that the apple has as good an appearance as one with the minimum 
percentage of stripes of good red characteristic of the variety required 
for the grade. Faded brown stripes shall not be considered as color 
except in the case of the Gray Baldwin variety. 

Definitions of Terms 
As used in these grades: 

1. "Mature" means having reached the stage of maturity which will 
insure the proper completion of the ripening process. 

Before a mature apple becomes overripe it will show varying degrees 
of firmness, depending upon the stage of the ripening process. The 
following terms are used for describing these different stages of maturity 
of apples: 

(a) "Hard" means apples with tenacious flesh and starchy flavor. 
Apples at this stage are suitable for storage and long-distance shipment. 

(6) "Firm" means apples with tenacious flesh but becoming crisp 
with a sHght starchy flavor, except the Delicious variety. Apples at 



136 



HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



Variety 



U. S. 

Fancy 



Solid red: 

Aiken Red 

Arkansas Black 

Black Ben 

Detroit Red 

Esopus Spitzenbiirg. . . 

Gano 

King David 

Lowry 

Opalescent 

Virginia Beauty 

Winesap 

Other similar varieties. 
Striped or partially red: 

Jonathan 

Kinnard 

Mcintosh 

Missouri Pippin 

Other similar varieties. 

Arkansas (Mammoth 
Black Twig) 

Delicious 

Baldwin 

Gray Baldwin 

Ben Davis 

Bonum 

Fameuse 

Limbertwig 

Nero 

Northern Spy 

Ontario 

Paragon 

Ralls (Geneton) 

Rainier 

Rome Beauty 



Percent 

50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 



33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 



U. S. 
No. 1 



Percent 

25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 



50 


25 


50 


25 


50 


25 


50 


25 


50 


25 



15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 



Variety 



Striped or partially red- 
Continued 

Salome 

Stayman Winesap .... 

Sutton 

Tompkins King 

Wagener 

"Wealthy 

Willowtwig 

York Imperial 

Other similar varieties. 

Stark 

Hubbardston 

Other similar varieties 

Red June 

WiUiams 

Other similar varieties. 

Gravenstein 

Jefferies 

Oldenburg (Duchess of 

Oldenburg) , 

Red Astrachan , 

Shiawassee 

Smokehouse 

Summer Rambo 

Twenty Ounce 

Other similar varieties.. 
Red cheeked or blushed: 

Hyde King 

Maiden Blush 

Monmouth (Red 

Cheeked Pippin) . . . . 

Winter Banana 

Other red cheeked or 

blushed varieties . . . . 
Yellow or green varieties. 



U. S 
Fancy 



Percent 



33 


15 


33 


15 


66 


15 


33 


15 


33 


15 


33 


15 


33 


115 


66 


15 


66 


15 


25 


10 


25 


10 


25 


10 


33 


(*) 


33 


(*) 


33 


(*) 


25 


(*) 


25 


(*) 


25 


(*) 


25 


(*) 


25 


(*) 


25 


(*) 


25 


(*) 


25 


(*) 


25 


(*) 


(t) 


None 


(t) 


None 


(t) 


None 


(t) 


None 


(t) 


None 


it) 


it) 



* Tinge of color. t Blushed cheek. J Characteristic color. 



this stage are also suitable for storage and long-distance shipment. 

(c) "Firm ripe'' means with crisp flesh except that in apples of the 
Gano, Ben Davis, and Rome Beauty varieties the flesh may be slightly 
mealy. Apples at this stage may be shipped long distances but should 
be moved into consumption within a short period of time. 

(d) "Ripe" means mealy and soon to become soft for the variety. 
Apples at this stage should be moved immediately into consumption. 



GENERAL INFORMATION 



137 



2. "Overripe" means dead ripe, very mealy or soft, past commercial 
utility. 

3. "Carefully handpicked'^ means that the apples do not show evi- 
dence of rough handling or of having been on the ground. 

4. "Clean'' means free from excessive dirt, dust, spray residue, or 
other foreign material. 

5. "Fairly well formed" means that the apples may be slightly abnor- 
mal in shape but not to an extent which detracts materially from the 
appearance of the fruit. 

6. "Seriously deformed" means so badly misshapen that the appear- 
ance is severely affected, 

7. "Damage" means any injury or defect which materially detracts 
from the appearance or keeping quality of the apples. 

(a) Russeting which exceeds the following shall be considered as 
damage : 

Russeting which is excessively rough on Roxbury Russet and other 
similar varieties. 

Russeting on other varieties which covers a total area of more than 
25 per cent of the surface in the aggregate except that — 

(1) Smooth, solid russeting which covers an area of more than 10 
percent of the surface in the aggregate shall be considered as damage 
unless the russeting is within or continuous with that in the stem basin 
or calyx cavity, in which case an additional 15 percent shall be per- 
mitted provided that the total area covered shall not exceed 25 percent 
in the aggregate. 

(2) Slightly rough russeting which covers an area of more than 15 
percent of the surface if confined to the stem basin or calyx cavity or 
continuous therewith, or such russeting which covers an area of more 
than one-half inch in diameter if it is not continuous with the russeting 
in the stem basin or calyx cavity, shall be considered as damage. 

(3) Rough russeting which is well within the stem basin and is not 
readily apparent shall be permitted, but any other rough russeting which 
exceeds one-quarter inch in diameter shall be considered as "damage." 

Any one of the following defects, or any combination thereof, the 
seriousness of which exceeds the maximum allowed for any one defect, 
shall be considered as damage: 

(6) Sunburn or spray bum which has caused blistering or cracking 
of the skin or when the discolored area does not blend into the normal 
color of the fruit unless the injury can be classed as russeting (7a). 

(c) Dark brown or black limb rubs which affect a total area of more 
than one-half inch in diameter or light brown limb rubs which affect a 
total area of more than 1 inch in diameter. 



138 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



{d) Hail marks, drought spots, or other similar depressions or scars 
which are not superficial or where the injury affects more than one-half 
inch of the surface in the aggregate. 

(e) Disease. Scab spots which are not corked over or corked-over 
scab spots which affect a total area of more than one-fourth inch in 
diameter. 

Cedar-rust infection which exceeds in the aggregate an area of one- 
quarter inch in diameter. 

Sooty blotch or fly speck which is thinly scattered over more than 
one-tenth of the surface, or dark, heavily concentrated spots which affect 
an area of more than one-half inch in diameter. 

(/) Insects. More than two healed insect stings or any healed insect 
sting which is over one-eighth inch in diameter exclusive of any encircling 
discolored ring. 

Worm holes. 

8. "Serious damage'* means any injury or defect which seriously 
detracts from the appearance or keeping quality of the apples 

(a) Russeting which exceeds the following shall be considered as 
serious damage: 

Smooth solid russeting which affects more than one-half of the sur- 
face in the aggregate, including any russeting in the stem basin, or rough 
or barklike russeting which detracts from the appearance of the fruit 
to a greater extent than the smooth solid russeting permitted, provided 
that any amount of russeting shall be permitted on Roxbury Russet 
and similar varieties. 

Any one of the following defects or any combination thereof, the 
seriousness of which exceeds the maximum allowed for any one defect 
shall be considered as serious damage : 

{h) Sunburn or spray burn which seriously detracts from the appear- 
ance of the fruit. 

(c) Limb rubs which affect more than one-tenth of the surface in 
the aggregate. 

id) Hail marks, drought spots or scars, if they materially deform or 
disfigure the fruit, or if such defects affect more than one-tenth of the 
surface in the aggregate, provided that no hail marks which are un- 
healed shall be permitted and not more than an aggregate area of one- 
half inch shall be allowed for well-healed hail marks where the skin has 
been broken. 

(e) Visible water core which affects an area of more than one-half 
inch in diameter. 
(/) Disease. 



GENERAL INFORMATION 



139 



Scab spots which are not corked over or corked-over scab spots which 
affect a total area of more than three-fourths inch in diameter. 

Cedar-rust infection which exceeds in the aggregate an area of three- 
fourths inch in diameter. 

Sooty blotch or fly speck which affects more than one-third of the 
surface. 

ig) Insects. 

More than five healed insect stings. 
Worm holes. 

Tolerances for Preceding Grades 

In order to allow for variations incident to proper grading and han- 
dling, not more than a total of 10 percent of the apples in any con- 
tainer may be below the requirements of the grade, provided that not 
more than 5 percent shall be seriously damaged by insects and not 
naore than one-fifth of this amount, or 1 percent, shall be allowed for 
decay or internal breakdown. 

When applying the foregoing tolerances to the combination grades 
no part of any tolerance shall be used to reduce the percentage of 
apples of the higher grade required in the combination. 

The tolerances specified for the various grades are placed on a con- 
tainer basis. However, any lot of apples shall be considered as meet- 
ing the requirements of a specified grade if the entire lot averages 
within the tolerances specified, provided that no sample from the con- 
tainers in any lot is found to exceed the following amounts: 

For a specified tolerance of 10 percent, not more than one and one- 
half times the tolerance shall be allowed in any one package. 

For specified tolerances of 5 per cent or less, not more than double 
the tolerance shall be allowed in any one package. 

Condition after Storage or Transit 

Decay, scald, or other deterioration which may have developed on 
apples after they have been in storage or transit shall be considered as 
affecting condition and not the grade. 

Size Requirements 

The numerical count or the minimum size of the apples packed in a 
closed container shall be indicated on the package. 

When the numerical count is marked on the container the apples 
shall not vary more than one-fourth inch in their transverse diameter. 



140 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



When the numerical count is not shown the minimum size shaU be 
plainly stamped, stenciled, or otherwise marked on the container in 
terms of whole inches, whole and half inches, whole and quarter inches^ 
or whole and eighth inches, as 2V2 inches minimum, 2% inches minimum, 
or ^/s inches minimum, in accordance with the facts. It is suggested 
that both minimum and maximum sizes be marked on the container, 
as 2% to 2% inches, or 2% to 2% inches, as such marking is especially- 
desirable for apples marketed in the export trade. r 

"Size'' means the transverse diameter of the apple taken at right 
angles to a line running from the stem to the blossom end. 

In order to allow for variations incident to proper sizing, not more 
than 5 percent of the apples in any container may not meet the size 
requirements, provided that when the maximum and minimum sizes 
are both stated an additional 10 percent tolerance is provided for apples 
which are larger than the maximum size stated. 

Packing Requirements 

Each package shall be packed so that the apples in the shown face 
shall be reasonably representative in size, color, and quality of the 
contents of the package. 

Boxes. Apples packed in the standard northwestern apple boxes 
shall be arranged in the containers according to the approved and recog- 
nized methods with the stems pointing toward the ends of the boxes^ 
except when jumbled, and all packages shall be well filled but the con* 
tents shall not show excessive or unnecessary bruising because of over- 
filled packages. Apples packed in the standard northwestern apple 
boxes shall show a total bulge (top and bottom) of not less than three- 
fourths inch. Each wrapped apple shall be completely enclosed by its 
individual wrapper. 

Baskets. Apples packed in round-stave bushel baskets or tubs shall 
be ring faced and tightly packed with sufficient bulge to prevent any 
appreciable movement of the apples within the containers when lidded. 

Barrels. Apples in barrels shall be tightly packed. 

In order to allow for variations incident to proper packing not more 
than 5 percent of the containers in any lot may not meet these require- 
ments. 

Marking 

In order to conserve space, abbreviations may be used for marking 
the United States grade names on containers. The following abbrevia- 
tions are suggested where it is not desired to use the full grade name: 



GENERAL INFORMATION 



141 



1. U. S. Fey. for U. S. Fancy. 

2. U. S. No. 1 for U. S. Number 1. 
S. U. S. Com. for U. S. Commercial. 

4. U. S. Util. for U. S. Utility. 

5. Combination grades may be designated by abbreviations of the 
grades preceded by the abbreviation "Comb.'^ as '^Comb. U. S. Fey. — 
U. S. No. 1.^' 

Standards for Export 
As applied to condition factors. 

1. The apples in any lot shall be generally tightly packed when in 
barrels or baskets and either generally fairly tight or tightly packed 
when in boxes. 

2. Not more than 5 per cent of the apples in any container shall be 
further advanced in maturity than firm ripe. 

3. Not more than a total of 5 percent of the apples in any container 
shall be damaged by bitter pit, Jonathan spot, scald, internal break- 
down, water core, freezing, decay, or other condition factors, except 
that — 

(a) Not more than 2 percent shall be allowed for apples affected by 
decay. 

{b) Not more than 2 percent shall be allowed for damage by inter- 
nal breakdown. 

(c) The apples shall be free from scald unless they are properly 
packed in oiled paper or have been especially treated with oil to pre- 
vent scald. When so packed or treated, not more than 2 percent of 
slight scald shall be permitted. 

Any lot of apples shall be considered as meeting the standards for 
export if the entire lot averages within the requirements specified, pro- 
vided that no sample from the containers in any lot is found to exceed 
double the percentages specified. 

Secure Service and Regulatory Announcements No. 16 from the 
United States Department of Agriculture. 

II. U. S. STANDARD CONTAINERS 

The U. S. Standard barrel contains 7056 cubic inches. Subdivisions 
of this barrel are three-fourths barrel, one-half barrel, and one-third 
barrel. The standard barrel, commonly called a 3-bushel barrel, actu- 
ally holds 3 bushels and 9 quarts. Many states have enacted as state 
laws the United States standard barrel act. 

The cranberry barrel contains 5826 cubic inches. 



142 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



Climax baskets are of three sizes holding 2, 4, or 12 quarts dry 
measure. 

Berry boxes and till baskets contain one-half pint, one pint, one 
quart, and multiples of the quart, all dry measure. The dry quart holds 
67.2 cubic inches. 

Hampers and round-stave baskets are of the following capacities: 
%, V2, %, and % bushel, 1 bushel, 1^/4, 1%, and 2 bushels. A bushel, 
standard dry measure, holds 2150.42 cubic inches. This is the Winchester 
"struck" bushel. 

Many states have attempted to define the bushel in terms of weight. 
But the bushel is a unit of volume, and it is impossible to define accu- 
rately a unit of volume in terms of weight, as the weight of any given 
volume of fruits or vegetables will vary with the size, variety, and con- 
dition of the product, and the tightness of the pack. 

Standard splint baskets are of the following capacities : 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, 
and 32 quarts, dry measure. 

III. PACKING APPLES IN BARRELS 

The fruit may be packed from a packing table or from compartments 
into which the fruit runs from sizing machines. 

(1) Preparing the barrel: Drive down quarter hoops and fasten with 
three or four three-penny nails well clinched inside of barrel. Take out 
one head, the better of the two, removing the top hoop. The cooper 
marks the last head he puts in the barrel. This is always the better 
head, with the best croze or groove, in which the beveled edges of the 
headpieces fit. Nail the other head, using about six four-penny nails 
driven through the hoop, into the headpieces at an angle of about 45 
degrees. Nails driven straight down will not hold as well and will often 
break the hoops when the barrels are opened for inspection. Nail head 
liners (small strips of hoops or other woods moistened to make them 
flexible) across edges of head pieces to prevent their pushing out when 
the barrel is packed. The second hoops should never be nailed. Mark 
the head with the proper terms giving variety, grad«, size, and packer's 
number. Some packers merely indicate the essential facts with a pen- 
cil and complete the label later. Rubber stamps or stencils are com- 
monly used for marking the package. Much of the information, except- 
ing the name of the variety and the size, may be put on the head of the 
barrel at odd times before the packing season begins. The use of bar- 
rels with hoops of different colors for the different grades will help to 
avoid mistakes. 

(2) Facing the barrel: Place a corrugated paper pad, with comi- 



GENERAL INFORMATION 



14a 



gated side down, in the barrel. Sorters have been selecting "facers" 
from the table and placing them in sidepockets on the table or in drop- 
handle baskets hung by hooks on the sides of the table. These "facers" 
are the apples that are to form the first layer or plate in the barrel. 
They should be fairly representative of the whole barrel, and uniform 
as to size and color in order to fit well and to make the face look as 
attractive as possible when the barrel is opened (Figs. 51 and 52). 




Turn the fruit carefully out of the basket into the barrel and then, 
with head and shoulders inside the barrel, turn the apples stem down- 
ward, placing them in circles or rings beginning at the outside. If 
apples are properly selected, the center of the face will be filled with 
one, three, or four apples, depending on the size of the fruit being 
packed, of the same size as or a trifle larger than those in the adjacent 
ring. The face should never be completed by an apple much larger 
or smaller than the others in the face. If this is necessary, it indicates 
that apples of the proper size or uniformity were not selected. The face 
should be tight and springy when completed. Use the same number of 



144 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



apples for the face in every barrel of the same variety and grade, so 
that the appearance is the same no matter what barrel may be opened 
for inspection. 

Devices are now available for arranging the face before placing the 
fruit in the barrel and are used by some growers. The packer inserts 
the device in the barrel and releases the fruit when it is in place. 

(3) Filling the barrel: ^^Spotters" or backers are now placed with 
colored cheek down over the spaces between the facers, insuring a very 
attractive appearance when the barrel is opened for inspection, and 
keeping the face in place until the barrel is packed. 

Fill the barrel, running in about one-half bushel of apples at a time 
either from compartments of the packing table or from baskets, care- 
fully turned into the barrel. If apples are run into the barrel from the 
table, use a canvas or burlap apron attached below the gate so that 
the fruit may be lowered gently into the barrel. Rack or shake the 
barrel quickly and sharply, to settle the fruit into place. Do this regu- 
larly when filling the barrel. No amount of pressing after the barrel is 
filled is a substitute for racking, and a slack barrel will result after the 
fruit has been packed for a short time. Some growers and associations 
have devised mechanical shakers which work well. 

Shredded oiled paper should be added to barrels that are intended 
for storage, especially for those varieties particularly subject to scald. 
(See page 66.) 

(4) Tailing and heading the barrel: When the barrel lacks about 
3 inches of being full, it is ready for "tailing" in preparation for closing 
the package. Tailing may consist merely of placing the apples as 
evenly as possible without special arrangement, or the barrel may be 
"ring tailed," improving the appearance and facilitating the insertion 
of the head. In ring tailing, the packer should quickly arrange the 
fruit in the last two or three layers so as to insure a fairly even 
surface. A follower consisting of a 2-inch plank cut to fit into the 
barrel, heavily padded on the lower side, with a handle on the upper 
side, should be used in connection with racking the barrel to secure 
this even surface. In fact a follower should be used in packing regard- 
less of the form of tailing that is practiced. It will level off the pack 
and insure a distribution of the pressure of the head uniformly over 
the fruit. 

In ring tailing, place the last layer of fruit on its side or cheek in con- 
centric rings with the stem of one apple next to the blossom end of its 
neighbor. The center of the tail should be a little higher than the rest, 
but the fruit should project very slightly, if at all, above the staves in 
a well-packed barrel. For export trade fill the barrels a little higher 



GENERAL INFORMATION 



145 



than for domestic markets. Rack them thoroughly on a solid base while 
filling. 

Put on a corrugated paper pad, with the smooth side against the 
fruit, place head pieces and top hoop on the barrel, and attach the press, 
or roll the barrel on the platform, if one is used in connection with the 
press. 

Two types of presses are in common use, the screw and lever. Press 
the head slowly into place, driving down the top hoop as the head set- 
tles into the croze or groove in the staves. Nail the head as before, 
four properly driven nails being sufficient. For greater safety, use head 
liners. The package should always be handled very carefully after it 
has been packed. 

(5) Packing tables : The packing table may be a fixed piece of equip- 
ment in the shed or packing house, or portable tables may be used. A 
good portable packing table, which will hold several barrels, provides a 
slatted bottom, beveled on the upper edges, permits refuse to drop 
out, the pitch from the back to front makes it easy to work the apples 
toward the barrel, and yet they move deliberately enough to permit 
careful inspection and to prevent injury. Padded baskets, hung on 
the sides of the table, may be used for facers. 

A board or hinged device closes the lower end or gate through 
which fruit passes to the barrel. The barrel should stand on a hard- 
wood plank or concrete for "racking down.'' A canvas or burlap apron 
extends from under the gate end of the table out over the barrel, so 
that the apples may be lowered gently into the barrel. 

Such a table may have chutes or places for filling two barrels at 
once and is often mounted on wheels at the back to facilitate move- 
ment from place to place. Specifications of a good table follow: 

Table 8 feet by 4 feet with 8-inch sides, slats in bottom 1 inch 
square with beveled upper edges and spaced 1 inch apart, legs 2 
inches by 4 inches or 2 inches by 6 inches, lower legs 38 inches long, 
upper legs 44 inches long ; opening or gate over barrel 8 inches wide — 
material soft pine or other dressed lumber. The length may be 
increased to permit handling fruit by a larger number of workmen, 
but the table should always be narrow enough so that a sorter stand- 
ing at either side may reach beyond the center. Sides should be 
padded as well as the upper 2 or 3 feet where the apples are turned 
onto the table. Chutes for culls may be built in. 

A grower with 1000 or more barrels to pack would probably find a 
mechanical sizer a good investment, yielding better results than run- 
ning the fruit over a packing table. 



146 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



Some tender varieties as Mcintosh or Northern Spy should prob- 
ably not be run over a packing table, but should be sorted from long 
tables with canvas bottoms in order to avoid bruising. In fact, such 
varieties should not be packed in barrels. 



IV. MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE STORAGE FOR APPLES 

AND PEARS 

As Described by the Department of Pomology, Cornell University 

What Is Modified'Atmosphere Storage f Fruits are living organisms 
which carry on the fundamental chemical reaction of respiration. Car- 
bohydrates are oxidized in the presence of oxygen with the subsequent 
production of water, carbon dioxide, and heat. In addition to the 
thermal effect, any chemical reaction is affected by a diminution in 
amount of one of the reactants or by allowing one of the end products 
to accumulate. Hence respiration is diminished in intensity not only 
by lowering the temperature (as in cold storage) but also by reducing 
the amount of ox>^gen or allowing the carbon dioxide to accumulate. 

By use of gas-tight structures and controlled ventilation, the de- 
sired proportions of carbon dioxide and oxj^gen can be easily attained 
in most cases. For example, suppose that an operator desires an atmos- 
phere containing 10 percent carbon dioxide and 11 percent oxygen. 
The respiring fruit in a gas-tight, metal-lined storage cham^ber produces 
an accumulation of carbon dioxide which finally reaches the desired 
10 percent value. By difference from the normal air figure of 21 percent 
oxj'gen, the oxygen value will now be 11 percent, since during the pro- 
duction of carbon dioxide almost an equal volume of oxj^gen has been 
consumed. In such a system, frequent determinations of the carbon 
dioxide are made on a katharometer outside the chamber, and if the 
carbon dioxide exceeds 10 percent, a port in the door is opened until the 
proper percentage has been attained. 

With some varieties it may be desirable to have independent con- 
trol of carbon dioxide and ox>^gen. Control of these two gases by 
regulated ventilation will provide the desired atmosphere only when the 
summation of these two gases is 21 percent. For an atmosphere such 
as 5 percent carbon dioxide and 2 percent oxygen, the oxygen is reduced, 
by respiration, from the normal figure of 21 percent down to 2 percent, 
and the excess carbon dioxide is absorbed by means of sodium hydroxide 
or calcium hydroxide in an atmospheric "scrubber." The oxygen is 
prevented from falling below 2 percent by ventilation as required. 



GENERAL INFORMATION 



147 



The maxiiniim temperature employed with any variety of apples is 
40° F. This requires insulation and refrigeration equipment just as 
with cold storage. Modified atmosphere storage should be regarded as a 
supplement to cold storage. 

Advantages of This Type of Storage. The following advantages are 
to be realized in the use of this system: 

1. Many varieties of apples are subject to low-temperature troubles 
such as brown heart, internal browning, and brown core. By using 
temperatures from 38 to 40° F. and the proper atmosphere, these 
varieties can be kept just as long as if not longer than at 32° and will be 
free from these disorders. 

2. With some apple and pear varieties, temperatures as low as 34° F. 
can be employed and storage life is very greatly lengthened. For 
example, Kidd and West have shown that Bartlett pears normally can 
be kept about eight weeks in cold storage at 34° F. In modified 
atmosphere storage they can be kept satisfactorily seven months at 
34° F. 

3. A specific effect of carbon dioxide is greatly to retard the normal 
green to yellow change in apples and pears. This is of great importance 
in storage of varieties of green cooking apples. 

4. A marked residual effect of storage is noticed as a result of this 
scheme. Fruit removed from storage will remain marketable much 
longer than that removed from cold storage. 

5. Because of the inhibitory effect of carbon dioxide on mold growth, 
somewhat higher humidities can be used in modified atmosphere stor- 
age than in cold storage. This means less fruit shriveling during 
storage. 

Disadvantages of This Type of Storage, 1. Because of the danger of 
suffocation and of loss of the required atmospheric concentrations of 
carbon dioxide and oxygen, operators cannot enter the chambers for 
inspection of the fruit or manipulation of equipment. Hence, fruit is 
periodically examined by reaching through the ventilating port. Since 
the chamber cannot be opened until the storage season is over, the fruit 
to be marketed in each marketing period is put in separate chambers. 

2. It is difficult to construct buildings gas tight. In spite of the sheet- 
metal linings and vaseline-sealed joints, in even the best-constructed 
modified atmosphere storages, there is a leakage of 6 percent per day, 
or more. 

3. As has been stated, modified-atmosphere storage is not univer- 
sally applicable to all fruits or all varieties of any one fruit. 

4. The double effect of low temperatures plus atmospheric control 
cannot always be expected to give the full theoretical benefit that might 



148 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



be anticipated. With certain varieties, concentrations of carbon dioxide 
as low as 2 percent are toxic at a temperature of 32® F. Because of 
this toxicity factor, with many varieties of fruit the temperature must 
be as high as 40° F. Different apple varieties have different specific 
atmospheric and temperature requirements for long-time keeping. This 
necessitates the use of different chambers with varieties of different 
atmospheric requirements. 

5. With apples the scald hazard is increased because of the restricted 
ventilation. For this reason, all apples stored in gas-tight chambers 
must be treated with oiled papers. 

Applications of Modified-Atmosphere Storage, At Cornell the only 
apple varieties studied in detail to date are Mcintosh, Cortland, and 
Northwestern Greening. Of these three, Cortland is the only od3 which 
has not offered real promise in modified-atmosphere storage. The 
scald hazard is so great with this variety even with oiled papers in the 
container that it is not recommended for trial in this system of storage 
till a better method of scald control is found. Preliminary work indi- 
cates that there may be such a control. With both Mcintosh and North- 
western Greening the best atmospheres have proved to be 5 percent 
carbon dioxide and 2 percent oxygen, with a temperature of 40° F. Of 
course, the remainder of the atmosphere was nitrogen. To attain such 
an atmosphere, it is necessary to reduce the carbon dioxide concentra- 
tions with an atmospheric scrubber or washer which contains sodium 
hydroxide solution. Such a system is in use with certain varieties in 
England. 

Pears seem eminently adapted to this type of storage, according to 
studies in England and California. Just what are the best atmospheres 
for our American-grown varieties for longest keeping is not clear. None 
of the stone fruits seems adapted to long-time storage in modified 
atmospheres, it would seem from California investigations. 

V. FROZEN FRUIT 

Freezing methods of fruit preservation make it possible for a house- 
wife to serve a wide variety of fruits with fresh qualities on very short 
notice at any season of the year. Frozen fruit may be purchased for less 
than out-of-season fresh produce of equal quality. Consequently a large 
industry has been built up which caters to the discriminating housewife, 
confectioner, and dining room. 

To produce a good frozen product, it is important to select fruit 
of proper quality and maturity, and in many cases the proper variety. 
Klondike, Blakemore, Marshall, and Dunlap strawberries; Eclipse, 



GENERAL INFORMATION 



149 



Elberta, and South Haven peaches; Cuthbert raspberries; Monitor, 
Damson, Italian Prune, and Yellow Egg plums have qualities which 
make a better frozen product than other varieties of the same type of 
fruit. 

Cranberries, blueberries, raspberries, and plums are usually frozen 
whole; strawberries and peaches are packed both whole and sliced; 
apples, cranberries, cherries, and grapes may be frozen whole or con- 
verted into juice which is held fresh for over a year. 

Although the freezing of berries in syrup at 10° F. and packing in 
kegs and cans have been practiced since 1900 and about 70,000 barrels of 
strawberries and raspberries are still packed in the Pacific Northwest each 
year, fruit is now made available in tight rectangular cartons or paraffined 
cardboard. Commercial companies have taken advantage of research 
carried out by the Bureau of Plant Industry at the University of Cali- 
fornia and the Georgia Experimental Station. Since a large proportion 
of the fruit is eaten raw, they have shown that it is important to prevent 
shrinkage, to maintain the flavor, to reduce oxidation, and thereby to 
preserve the natural color of the raw fruit. 

Various companies differ in the pre-treatments, the minimum tem- 
peratures, and the rates of application of temperatures which they use 
to produce their particular product. Sharp freezing in fruit chambers 
at 0° F., spraying a cold liquid over fresh fruit, moving it through a 
cylinder where the air is blown toward it, and placing it in contact 
with plates at 40° F. are four of the most common freeing methods. 
After the fruit is frozen the finished product must be stored in a freezing 
temperature. Facilities for marketing of this product have become 
very efficient during the last few years. 

Some growers have found it to their advantage to adapt a portion of 
their apple cold storage to freeze surplus fruit in heavy-crop years. 
This practice of freezing fruit in the home storage stabilizes the mar- 
ket and is a new outlet for produce. In 1938, in New York State, 22 
million pounds of sour cherries were frozen. Many strawberries are 
"cold packed" in North Carolina, Maryland, Louisiana, and Tennessee; 
cherries in Michigan and New York; cranberries in Massachusetts; and 
other fruits in smaller quantities in limited sections where they are 
grown. 

In most fruit districts the large cold-storage plants have freezing 
lockers which they rent to growers for their own use for as little as 
$8.00 a year. In these a large part of the year's supply of various prod- 
ucts may be kept for family use. Some growers install their own 
lockers. Lockers aa-e available on the community basis in some sections. 



150 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 

Make a survey of the practices of the growers in your community 
as follows. Do this for each fruit of commercial importance. 

1. Varieties grown in order of importance. 

2. Average picking dates or order of picking. 

3. Kinds of ladders used — reasons for selection, where obtained, and 
cost. 

4. Kinds of picking receptacles — reasons for use, where obtained, cost. 

5. How fruit is picked — ^by day, by package — quantity picked in day 
by each method — wages and rates paid. 

6. Yields per tree and per acre — make estimate and then check with 
actual yields. 

7. How fruit is handled after picking — ^in orchard, in crates or barrels 
or other packages and hauled under cover. 

8. Is crop packed? If not, how handled? 

9. If packed, how soon after picking? 

10. What package is used? Why? Cost of package? 

11. How many packages packed in day? Cost of packing? 

12. What is the proportion of fruit that packs into various grades? 
What disposition is made of fruit not packed? 

13. How is fruit held after packing? 

14. How and to whom is fruit sold? Prices received? 

15. Make sketch of a packing house, and indicate improvements in 
lighting, arrangement of equipment, rapidity of handling, and storage. 

16. Study the operation of a roadside stand, with reference to location 
to invite patronage, attractiveness and convenience, first cost, cost of 
attendant at stand, number of days operated during the season, kinds 
and grades of fruit desired by patrons, average daily and seasonal sales. 

17. Study the methods of construction, loading, and refrigeration of a 
refrigerator car. 

18. Study the United States grades for packing apples and peaches and 
the packing and branding requirements of your own state, if any. 

B. Make a survey of the storage facilities of your community. Begin 
with the ordinaiy cellar storage. Follow with the special fruit cellar 
and storage building, and finish with a cold-storage plant. 

Investigate : 

1. Location: 

a. Ease of access to orchard and with team or truck. 

b. Access to shipping point. 

2. Facilities for unloading 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 



151 



3. Capacity. 

4. Construction: 

a. Walls. 

h. Floor and ceiling. 

c. Attic and auxiliary room if any. 

5. Ventilation provisions. 

6. Humidity provisions. 

7. Cost. 

8. Cost of storing by month and season. 

9. Get operator's plan for securing and maintaining desired tem- 

peratures. 



CHAPTER II 



PREPARING FOR WINTER AND DETERMINING 
INJURY FROM COLD WEATHER 

As the grower works with the fruit plantation during the 
summer, he is making note of things that should be done 
before winter comes. 

Operations: 

1. List trees to be replaced. 

2. Provide soil drainage. 

3. Control mice. 

4. Protect trees from mice and rabbits. 

5. Determine injury from cold weather. 

1. List Trees to Be Replaced. Trees die from various 
causes and must be replaced, or they may be so weak as to 
make replanting advisable. It is a good practice for the 
grower to look for such trees as he goes through the orchard 
during the summer. If he waits until the leaves are off, he 
may fail to detect them. He should make a record of the 
varieties and the number of each that must be replaced and 
order them in the fall, even though delivery may not be de- 
sired until spring. Growers sometimes become careless with 
regard to filling vacant spaces with trees. Since the land is 
devoted to the fruit enterprise and since orchard operations 
must go on even though some trees are missing, it is poor 
business to have only a partial stand of trees. 

2. Provide Soil Drainage. Some young trees may stand 
in depressions that are settling points for surface water. If 
left thus through the cold period, they may suffer from killing 
of the roots or trunk near the base of the tree. The depression 

152 



CONTROL MICE 



153 



should be filled so that the water drains away from, rather 
than toward, the tree. 

The area in general may be so flat as to possess poor surface 
drainage. The condition is aggravated if the subsoil is heavy 
and slow in permitting water to work through it. Under such 
conditions, a system of soil management that will ridge up the 
tree rows, so that the water runs to the center of the spaces 
between the rows, will help the trees through the winter. 
Young trees located on such areas should never be left in dead 
furrows or out furrows during the winter. All tile drains 
should be inspected in the fall to make sure that they are work- 
ing properly and that the outlets are in good condition. 

3. Control Mice. Mice often damage fruit trees by girdling 
them above or below ground. Usually they are more destruc- 
tive in orchards under the sod or mulch systems with a heavy 
stand of crops, especially if the crop has gone to seed and thus 
attracts them. The injury, though greatest in the winter 
months, is likely to take place any time in the fall or even 
early in the growing season. 

Injury above ground is usually caused by the common field 
or meadow mouse, that below ground by the pine mouse. 
The field mouse is larger and grayer than the pine mouse, which 
is reddish brown and resembles the mole. The grower is not 
likely to note the damage to the tree by the pine mouse until 
it is too late to prevent it. 

Poisoning the mice is practicable, especially when the 
orchard cannot be cultivated. In using a toxic bait or ro- 
denticide the grower should take advantage of his knowledge 
of the habits of the tree-girdling mouse. This mouse confines 
its movements to small runways which can easily be found 
by lifting the mulch under the trees. If a bait is placed di- 
rectly in the paths and covered, it is almost certain that good 
results will be obtained. Do not place bait where no runways 
are to be found. To prepare bait, cut cull apples of a firm 
variety into %-inch pieces, 100 pieces making approximately 
a quart of material, and sift over it a white powder which 



154 



PREPARING FOR WINTER 



can be obtained for a small cost from the United States 
Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. This bait must be 
used on the day it is prepared. 

One piece of bait is sufficient for every 10 square feet of 
orchard cover, both under and between the trees, and out to 
100 feet on every side of the field. The bait must always be 
covered. It is effective in 24 hours. This treatment should 
be made in late fall after all apples are picked up. Although 
the apple cubes make a very good bait and conveniently decay 
after a few days' exposure, a mixture of grain may be used 
instead if there are many windfall apples left under the tree. 
One treatment a year is satisfactory, provided that no nQW 
mice come in from outside of the orchard. If the orchard is 
surrounded by hedgerows, stone walls, etc., it may be advisable 
to treat the outer two or three rows several times. 

4. Protect Trees from Mice and Rabbits. Grass, litter, 
and trash of all kinds should be hoed away from the base of 
young trees before winter comes. Mice seldom molest trees 
not in sod, if they must come out into the open to do so. 

If a mound of clean soil is hoed up about the base of the 
trees and thoroughly packed down, this in itself is a good 
insurance against injury by mice and is the only treatment 
given by many fruit growers. It may not be sufficient, how- 
ever, for sod orchards or for outside rows in cultivated orchards 
surrounded by meadows or hedgerows. Mice sometimes do 
damage under such conditions even during the growing season, 
especially in the fall. 

Protection then best takes the form of some material 
wrapped about the base of the trees and shoved down into 
the soil so that there is no vulnerable spot above ground. Tar 
paper is effective, but should be removed each spring as there 
is sometimes evidence of injury to the bark when it is allowed 
to remain. The continued repetition of this operation makes 
the practice an expensive one. Wood veneer strips are also 
used, and even newspapers or building paper are quite effec- 
tive. 



PROTECT TREES FROM MICE AND RABBITS 155 



Hardware cloth with two to four meshes per inch (Fig. 53) 
will give protection against meadow mice during the summer 
and autumn. At no time is it protection against the pine 
mouse. This cloth comes in rolls 36 inches 
wide. The roll may be cut in two at the 
center, making each strip 18 inches wide. 
Cut these strips into pieces at about 14- 
inch intervals so that pieces 14 by 18 
inches are obtained. Roll and bend the 
strip about the trunk in such manner that 
the long way is up and down the trunk, 
and that the edges overlap well. The 
lower edges should be pushed well down 
into the soil. Twist a small wire loosely 
about the center. 

The trees are thus protected for several 
years without further attention, and at 
one operation. When the diameter of the 
trunk makes a change necessary, the strip 
may be turned so that it is 14 inches high 
and 18 inches in circumference, if de- 
sired. The objection to the use of this 
material lies in its first cost, but once ob- 
tained it will last for many years and may 
be transferred to younger trees as older 
ones outgrow the need for it. 

The foregoing measures also constitute 
protection against the common wild rabbit. 
In addition, repellents, such as lime-sulfur 
at full strength with various materials 
added, are sometimes applied with a brush 
to the tree trunks. These possess value 
but need to be renewed frequently and sometimes are not 
sufficient. A repellent wash for rabbits recommended by the 
United States Department of Agriculture is: 




Fig. 53. Wire pro- 
tectors will usually 
prevent injury from 
mice. They should 
be pushed into the 
soil and the cut 
edges at the top 
should be bent away 
from the tree. 



156 



PREPARING FOR WINTER 



Fish oil % 

Concentrated lime-sulfur % 

Water % 

Mix the materials thoroughly, and paint the tree from the 
ground well up on the scaffold branches. After each hea\y 
snowfall pack down the snow about the tree trunks, so 
that mice will not burrow beneath or rabbits work over the 

top of the snow to damage 
the trunk or branches. 

If clippings are made 
from the branches in late 
fall and strewn on the 
ground away from the trees, 
mice and rabbits will often 
feed on them without dis- 
turbing the trees. 

The jack rabbit, a fa- 
mous jumper, also able to 
stand on its hind legs and 
reach several feet in the air, 
constitutes a real problem 
in fruit sections where it is 
found. Fencing has been 
tried with only partial suc- 
cess, and it is expensive. A 
dog, gun, and restrictive 
laws are better measures. 
The same holds true of 
deer, which have done very 
great damage to young 
orchards in some sections. 




Fig. 54. Trees grown in sod or under 
a mulching sj'-stem are especially liable 
to injury from mice. This tree was 
girdled when the snow was on the 
ground. The white cloth separates 
the original trunk and the bridge 
graft on the right. 

Trees not more than 
three years of age may usually best be replaced, if girdled 
completely by mice or rabbits. Older trees may be bridge 
grafted (Fig. 5-i) with a considerable measure of success as 
described in the chapter "Propagating Fruit Plants.'' Areas 



DETERMINE INJURY FROM COLD WEATHER 157 

from which the cambium has been removed only in part may 
be painted with vv^hite lead and oil or coated with wax. 

5. Determine Injury from Cold Weather. Although many 
different factors affect the distribution of the fruit industry, 
probably the greatest single factor has been winter tempera- 
tures. Minimum temperatures in different sections of the 
country have determined the kinds of fruit that can be 
grown in such sections. In addition, an occasional winter 
of unusually low tem- 
peratures is experi- 
enced in a section 
where certain fruits 
normally thrive and a 
large portion of the 
trees are seriously in- 
jured or killed, caus- 
ing large financial 
losses. Injury occurs 
to various parts of the 
tree such as: (a) wood 
tissues, (6) leaf and 
fruit buds, (c) blos- 
soms, {d) roots. 

(a) Injury of 
Wood Tissues, The 
different tissues with- 
in the same plant 
vary considerably in 

their responses to low temperatures. In well-hardened wood, 
pith is usually the least-resistant tissue, followed in order by 
sap wood, bark, and finally cambium, which is usually the 
most resistant. 

Wood injury occurs iii many different forms such as: (1) 
black heart, (2) crotch injury, (3) crown or collar injury, (4) 
sun scald, (5) splitting of the trunk, and (6) killing back 
of the twigs and young branches. 




(Mich. Exp. Station) 

Fig. 55. Cross and longitudinal sections of 
apple wood showing "black heart" injury. 



t 

158 PREPARING FOR WINTER 




(a) (b) (c) {Indiana Exp. Station) 

Fig. 56. Crotch, Hmb, and trunk injury, (a) Crotch and trunk injury 
from cold weather. Note distinct line of demarcation between dead and 
live tissues, {b) This tree had two limbs girdled by winter injury. 
Crotch and trunk injury" has also occurred. The girdled limbs have been 
cut off close to the main branch and the dead bark has been removed 
from the other injured areas in preparation for painting, (c) Same tree 
as 6, with injured areas properly painted for protection. 



When injury to wood tissues 




(Mich. Exp. Station) 

Tig. 57. Collar injurv' from low 
temperatures at the base of an old 
apple tree. Note that the injur>' has 
occurred on the seedling stock just 
below the graft. The top is Mcintosh. 



has occurred, the affected 
tissues usually become 
bro^Ti or black in color. 
The injurv' can readily be 
noted either by cutting off 
small branches, by cutting 
through the bark of the 
branches, or by splitting 
small branches. Figure 55 
represents this type of in- 
jury. 

When injury" occurs in 
the crotch of the tree or at 
the ground or collar, the 
bark usually is killed and 
gradually loosens and 
comes off. Such injuries are 
sho\\Ti in Fio^s. 56 and 57. 



DETERMINE INJURY FROM COLD WEATHER 



159 



Injuries on the trunk, often on the south and southwest sides, 
may develop if sudden changes of temperatures have occurred 
during the days and nights of winter. 

Occasionally the twigs and young branches of fruit trees 
are killed during severe winters. Apricots and peaches are 




(Indiana Exp. Station) 
Fig. 58. Ten-year old Stayman Winesap apple 
tree with sparse summer foliage as a result 
of winter injury. 



usually less resistant to low temperatures than apples and 
some species of plums. Cherries and the Japanese plums 
are usually intermediate between these other fruits in their 
resistance to low temperatures. 

When the branches of young apple trees are injured by 



160 



PREPARING FOR WINTER 



cold weather, the foliage is usually weak and sparse the 
following spring. This condition is shown in Fig. 58. 

(t>) Killing of Leaf and Fruit Buds, Killing of leaf buds 
is not a very common occurrence in fruit trees, unless the whole 
twig is killed back. However, fruit buds of such fruits as 
peaches, cherries, Japanese plums, and apricots are often 
killed by low temperatures. This injury can be determined by 
cutting the buds longitudinally. The injured buds will usually 
have a black center and the damaged flower parts will be 
easily seen. 

(c) Killing of Blossoiris, Great losses are occasionally in- 
curred in fruit sections as a result of freezing temperatures at 
blossoming time. The resistance of the blossoms to cold is 
generally greater when they are quite small and before the 
petals open. This resistance decreases as the petals open and 
continues to decrease until the small fruits form. The blossoms 
of peaches, plums, cherries, and apricots, which open com- 
paratively early, especially if a warm spell occurs early in the 
spring, are among those most often killed. 

{d) Killing of Roots, The roots of fruit trees are usually 
much more tender than the tissues above ground. As a result, 
tree roots may be killed when the portions of tree above ground 
are uninjured. The internal tissues of injured roots turn 
brown or black. Injury is generally worse in light, sandy soils 
because such soils are usually drier, fluctuate more widely in 
temperature, and become colder than the heavier and more 
moist soils. If the trees are on hilly, wind-swept locations 
where the snow is likely to be blown away, more root injury 
usually occurs. 

The use of cover crops or sod is valuable in helping to 
prevent root injury. 

GENERAL INFORMATION 

I. Necessity of Maturing and Hardening of Wood Tissues 

Growing and immature tissues are injured at much higher tempera- 
tures than dormant tissue. Most trees which have been caused to grow 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 



161 



late in the fall by certain weather conditions or by certain cultural 
practices, such as heavy fertilization and pruning and late soil cultiva- 
tion, are less resistant to low temperatures than trees which stop growth 
earlier in the season. This is especially true of young trees, although 
the difference is not so marked in young peaches. 

Apparently an accumulation of carbohydrates in the tissues is one 
thing which is associated with maturity, and such trees appear to be 
better able to withstand low temperatures. In young trees which grow 
vigorously late in the season, and are often severely injured, most of 
the carbohydrates apparenly are used in growth so that the accumula- 
tion of these materials in the tissues is comparatively small. 

Trees which lose their foliage early in the summer because of the lack 
of proper spraying are usually injured more severely than similar trees 
which carry healthy foliage throughout the season. 

Growth of the trees should be checked in late summer and the wood 
allowed to mature. The use of vigorously growing cover crops which 
will compete with the trees late in the season for moisture and nitrates 
will assist greatly in checking growth and bringing about this desirable 
condition. 

COMMUNITY STUDIES 

1. After severe winters, make a survey of the winter injury in your 
section. Determine : 

a. The kinds of fruit injured. 

b. The relative resistance of the different fruits. 

c. The relative resistance of different varieties of the same fruit. 

d. The different types of injury. 

2. Were some orchards injured more than others? Determine the 
reason if possible. 

3. Was the injury worse with vigorous or weak trees? 

4. If frosts or freezes occur at blossoming time, keep a record of the 
temperatures and determine the percentage of injury of the blossoms of 
several varieties by examining the pistils. 

5. Make a list of the varieties of the different tree fruits, and arrange 
it in order of the smallest percentage of injury to blossoms. 

6. If the wood has been injured and the buds of peach trees have been 
killed, arrange an experiment to determine the effects of different 
amounts of pruning and of nitrate of soda on the subsequent recovery 
of the trees. 



CHAPTER III 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 

A mistake in establishing the orchard is much more serious 
than in the case of annual crops, where the error may be re- 
paired at the close of a single season. Careful planning and 
preparation for an orchard over a reasonable period of time 
will pay large dividends. 

Operations : 

1. Selecting the region. ^ 

2. Determining the size of the enterprise. 

3. Selecting the land to be planted. 

4. Determining time of planting. 

5. Determining varieties to plant. 

6. Determining planting distances and planting plans. 

7. Purchasing trees. 

8. Caring for trees on arrival. 

9. Preparing field for planting. 
10. Planting the trees. 

1. Selecting the Region. One of the first things that the 
prospective grower must do is to decide upon the region in 
which he will carry on his fruit enterprise. Certain areas have 
come to be known as favorable to this type of agriculture. The 
answer then is to look about you. The best source of in- 
formation available about fruit growing is often from those 
who are growing fruit successfully. If none such are to be 
found in the region, then there is generally a good reason for 
it, because the region either is poorly adapted to the fruit 
enterprise or is better adapted to some other. 

162 



SELECTING THE REGION 



163 



Of course, new transportation facilities may open up un- 
developed areas. These new facilities may be railroads or 
waterways or truck routes. Competing lines frequently bring 
better service and lower transportation costs than a single 
line. The advent of the motor truck has done much to ex- 
tend the fringes of commercial fruit growing away from the 
concentrated centers of the industry and within trucking 
distance of towns not well supplied heretofore with good fruit. 
Many such places often pay better prices (so long as the 
business is not overdone) than can be obtained on the general 
market. 

Recognized and long-established fruit sections come to be 
known as such and enjoy a certain reputation and standing in 
the fruit world. Buyers are accustomed to look to them 
for their requirements. Interest in improved practices runs 
high. Each neighbor is always a possible source of new 
information and ideas. Savings on supplies and equipment 
are possible through combined purchases on a large scale; 
storage, transportation facilities, and outlets for by-products 
are likely to be good. Service from the recognized public 
agencies as the experimental stations, farm bureaus, and 
agricultural institutions will be largely proportioned to the 
net importance of the industry. 

Consult Table 20 on transportation charges from producing 
to consuming centers on page 99. 

Consult records of temperature and rainfall. Scab is more 
difficult to control in a very humid region. Codling moth 
flourishes in the presence of high temperatures and in sections 
where the rainfall is limited. It is more difficult to control 
in Niagara County, New York, with an average rainfall of 
10 inches during May, June, July, and August than in the 
Hudson River Valley with 15 inches. 

Temperature governs the geographical range. An increase 
in altitude may accomplish the same result as a change in 
latitude. Rainfall is a limiting factor in some sections. If 
lacking, it must be supplied by irrigation. Winter extremes of 



164 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



cold, or violent fluctuations in winter temperatures, even 
though the weather may be relatively mild as a whole, and 
long, hot summers are not the most desirable for deciduous 
fruits. Such fruits succeed well with an uninterrupted and 
definite period of winter rest, when life processes are reduced 
to a minimum. 

Location near large bodies of water is often desirable, 
especially in the farther reaches of the industry, from the 
temperature standpoint. It is doubtful whether well-known 




Fig. 59. Orchards of young apple trees are concentrated in the more 

favored sections. 



fruit areas in Canada, New York, Ohio, and Michigan would 
have developed in the absence of Lakes Ontario, Erie, and 
Michigan. Such waters tend to retard spring growth beyond 
the date of frost injury, to extend the period for ripening and 
development in the fall, and reduce temperature fluctuations 
in the dormant period. 

Table 31 gives the number of bearing and non-bearing 
apple trees in the various states for 1910, 1920, and 1935 and 
the totals for the United States. The total of bearing and 
non-bearing trees in 1935 was less than the total of bearing 



DETERMINING THE SIZE OF THE ENTERPRISE 



165 



trees alone in 1920, but 
production has been main- 
tained. This is due in part 
to better management and 
also to the fact that the 
apple industry is concen- 
trating in the more-favored 
sections. Figure 59 indi- 
cates the sections of the 
United States in which the 
planting of young trees is 
greatest at the present time. 

2. Determining the Size 
of the Enterprise. Before 
progressing beyond the 
point of selecting the region 
in which to grow fruit, the 
grower must decide upon 
the extent of the enterprise 
that he proposes to conduct. 

Procedure: 

(a) Consider market 
to be served. 

(6) Consider supple- 
mental farm enterprises. 

(a) Consider Market to 
Be Served. This market 
may be the general market 
at large consuming centers, 
at a distance, or the local 
market near by. For the 
general market, the grower 
should have ah enterprise 
that will enable him to ship 




166 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 




DISTRIBUTION OF APPLE TREES 



C^^0000l>.C00iOOTHOl>O(MO00t^C0l>C5C000rHt^l0 
O5l><NC0<NCOi— lOiCO'^CSOOt^^OOCOrHT-HCOiOOOCO'^t^ 
C<lC^05Tfi(N0iO00C0i-H00C0i— iiOOOcOO'^OSCOiOiOOiO 



^ _ ^ _^ - _^ _^ ^^C« CO i-H^>0 O O CO O^'^^OS^ lO >0 O 
" a> 00 Tji CO (M CO (M AO 05 rH lOiOCQCO iOOOt^h 

i-l(M t*COCOi-l'^ rH 00rH(M 



CDCO"^ 
Oi ;0 <r> 



l>.COOO^^OOOOcDcDCOiO(NiOOOOOt^iOlr^t^r:|HiOOO(Nl> 
O(N00OC005O05-^001>I>O00(N0005t-i05|>OcD05(Mt^ 

o »o 1— I ^'*^'^^"^'^<^'-l.^'*^"^o ^<^o <^ 00 CO as 
t^Tio th" co" rH^ ^-^c^"c^"o"^^'r^^ 00^ cD^cTrirT^^ 

' ~ <M CO (M i-H l> (N CO CO TtH CO 00 CO CO 00 



fcOCOOOOO 
OOI> CO T-H 00 



i> lo T-H 



rHiON.-^l^001>COC5C005'^TjHCOCOCOTt<TlH"«^'?tiOOO(MCOI> 
0(NCO'^(MC005'^00(N00^001>COOi(MT-HiOOOCOcOOCOO 
>C O CO O^CO O C^^(N^CO CO C^iO CO O^C<l 00 (M 00 l> CO rH 

(n"io cTc^io ccTiCtCio cT co o't^oo crT}^"c^"TiH''co oTco c^'cTTjr 

COl>-C0CO(M O rH CO (N C5 CO (M O CO 00 t>- T-( lO 00 1— I CO Tt^ lO 
TJJ^I> 00 (N 00 ^^'"It^ ^ ^^^"^^^ ^ '^^^^ 

COC^Tt-T C^Tof CO C^th'tH^i-T th" rjTcvf^ 



c<^cocococ01-lT^^T^l^>0(^^ooco(^^col>corHOcoT-^o(^^r^^o 

005l005rHCO'^OCO'^00(MOOCOOOi— (OrHrHOOTHlOCO»Ot^ 

i> o o oq^co o^o ^rH <^^'-i^i>:^<^<^c^^^^'*^<^o^^^ '^'^ ^ 
CO oTco th'oo^co TjToTc^f (^^TH"(^TJ^o"rH"cd'lo"'^'"^o i> 

' 1> CO as T-i CO CO »0 CO T-i 00 »0 00 CO Oi t> 



t>.(N 00 (N ^ 



loascorHco lOT-Hcooi ooco co 



CD (N tH (N rH 



lO CO lO 

TtTT-Tc^ 



tN.i-lT-<l^iOCOCOasiXNOI:^rH|>OOCO(Ml>aiCOi-i(Ml>COCO 

i^co(Niooascoioascoi:^corH(Nas(MOcoasi>i:^T-icoasoo 
c^i>ooioiOTtHascocooooooa50T-Hiocoi>i>(MTtHcoi-HOco 



00»Ol^t^i-i 
C0»OTtH co^ 



(NT-HTtia5'*ir^t^ooa500t^i>oco(MTtHkooo 

'^00TtHCOt^'^i-HCOlO00>OI>00IXMTtlCOrH(M 
t^i-HOlMO '^TtlOCO l>CO !>• OCOrH 



t^kOCO rH COCOr-l Ttl tH tH (N 



J> CO CO 



OOt-I 
a rH 

rH 



^>a50l>(^^co(^^coT^^O(^^cooocoloool:^a5Tl^!>co(^^ 

COOOOCOC^CO*OOOrHLOiOcOlXM(N(MCOiOCOi-HCO 

i> (N rH^(M a5T^^c01-Hcooooo^>co^>^toooTt^coai^> 
rH^oo oo'oo 00 00 i^o'coio (xTco i>roo (^^(^^^^ 

00l>. CO CO CO (M ^ CO Oi O (M 00 CO rH |>0 (M 00 



00^ »o 00^ cq^ 



OS^T-H^CO O 
C^rH 



CO iO lO 



co''(n"c^'' 



c3 

So 
•S ^ "3 



C >H 5 -Q ^ 'ri 
^ - g g^.-23^ ^ 



03 



o3 



fe'C"H Si5'^ ^•S'^ <^fl^ o o fe- S'^ S'm w)^ 



•S T3 ksH 

S O 03 



O 

■a 



168 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



fruit in carlots. The larger the quantity which he can supply, 
the greater consideration he will receive from marketing 
agencies and the more readily he can make a permanent 
place for himself in the market. 

The local market will not absorb so large a quantity of 
fruit at a given time as the general market. It will often 
respond well, however, to a continuous supply in smaller 




(N. Y. 0. Railroad Co.) 

Fig. 61. A typical view along the *'Shore" read in western New York, 
showing a Baldwin orchard past middle life, but still producing heavily. 



quantities throughout the consuming season. Whether this 
requires as large a producing area as the general market de- 
pends upon the extent of the local market to be served. This 
calls for a careful survey by the prospective grower before 
he determines the size of his orchard. 

(b) Consider Supplemental Farm Enterprises, Consider- 
able expense must be incurred and carried along from year 
to year until the fruit enterprise begins to bring in income. 
Commercial production of apples in the East cannot be 



SELECTING THE LAND TO BE PLANTED 



169 



expected before the trees are 9 to 10 years of age, for most 
varieties. In Western sections 6 to 7 years will be required 
as a rule. Prospective growers often underestimate this factor 
seriously in making their plans. The grower should consider 
the advisability of diversifying his enterprise by growing 
other crops the labor requirements of which do not conflict 
seriously with those of his orchard. Such crops may often 
be grown on areas on the farm not well adapted to fruit. An 
animal enterprise of some kind may also fit in well and pro- 
vide another source of income. 

In the older fruit sections, it has been the custom to operate 
the orchard as part of a general farm business, combining 
with it some annual cash crops and perhaps a livestock en- 
terprise. In the newer sections, it is the prevailing custom to 
grow fruit in larger units and often to the exclusion of sup- 
plemental enterprises. Diversity of enterprises may be ob- 
tained by diversifying the kinds of fruit grown. The same 
equipment and general facilities are required for all, so 
that little additional outlay is involved. Annual crops may 
be grown between the trees, or additional land may be rented 
for this purpose, to give the grower an income until the fruit 
enterprise is ready. 

The present tendency in all commercial sections is away 
from the 10- to 20-acre orchard on the general farm. It is 
increasingly evident that a fruit grower must be a specialist, 
centering his abilities chiefly on the production and marketing 
of his fruit. Consult Table 33, page 173. 

3. Selecting the Land to Be Planted. In selecting the land 
for planting, good judgment and intelligent consideration may 
largely assure future success; the lack of them may bring 
mediocre results or absolute failure. 

Procedure: 

(a) Consider the elevation and slope. 

(b) Consider the type and drainage of the soil. 



170 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



(a) Consider the Elevation and Slope. Rolling land, or 
up-land acres, or sloping lands not too steep for efficient 
orchard practice are usually much better than level areas on 
river bottoms or valley floors. There should be land levels 
near by lower than that on which the fruit establishment is 
located, in order to insure continuous air movement or drain- 




{Michigan Exp. Station) 



Fig. 62. A Michigan peach orchard in which fruit buds on trees in the 
vicinity of X are frequently killed when those on trees about 0 at a 

greater elevation escape. 

age, through and away from the planting. Frost pockets and 
attendant injury occur where the air is still, and fungus 
diseases flourish where the foliage dries off slowly (see Fig. 
62). On the level areas of the eastern shore in Maryland and 
in Delaware a considerable fruit industry has developed, but 
here all the land is on the same general level and across it 
the sea and land breezes are frequently in motion. 



SELECTING THE LAND TO BE PLANTED 171 

Much advice that cannot be justified has been given in the 
past concerning slope or exposure. In nearly all fruit regions, 
successful orchards may be found sloping toward any point 
of the compass. If the section is subject to sudden and violent 
winds, a slope that will afford some protection is desirable. 
The influence of water on the climate disappears rapidly if the 
land slopes away from the water. Shallow water has little 
effect in any event. If winter injury is a factor, the slope 
that in the local experience seems to give the greatest measure 
of protection should be selected. 

South slopes tend to accelerate development of buds in the 
spring; north slopes tend to retard it; east and west exposures 
fall in between. 

(6) Consider the Type and Drainage of the Soil, The 
soil must be well drained and provide extensive root range. 
Fruit trees will thrive on a variety of soil types, but they 
will not tolerate wetness, and if they are to be thrifty and 
long of life, their roots must be able to penetrate the soil 
thoroughly. Heavy clay subsoil or continuous rock ledges or 
formations, near the surface and cutting off access to the soil 
areas below, are serious handicaps. 

An occasional wet spot in an otherwise desirable field may 
be tile drained. Entire orchards have been thus treated with 
good results, but it would have been better business had they 
been planted on land that did not need artificial drainage. 

A good upland corn soil has many of the characteristics of 
a good fruit soil, except that trees must root more deeply 
than corn. Peaches do best on the lighter types such as sandy 
loams, shales, etc. Apples and pears succeed on the loams 
containing appreciable quantities of clay and on all the 
ranges between them and peach soils. 

As an indication of the influence of soils on the grade of 
fruit produced, Table 32 gives the grading records for a 5-year 
period from two Michigan apple orchards of the same varieties 
and about the same age under the same management and with 
the same treatment, but located on different soil types: 



172 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



TABLE 32 

Grades of Fruit in Percentage — 5-Year Average of Two Michigan: 
Apple Orchards, Similar in All Respects Except Locations 
on Different Soil Types * 



Orchard 


A 


B 


C 


Canner 


Under 


Bulk 


93 


45 


22 


20 


8 


4 




94 


24 


12 


58 


4 


2 





* V. R. Gardner, Proceedings N. Y. State Horticultural Society^ 1928. 



The New York State College of Agriculture has published 
a study of factors affecting the incorae of apple growers. 
Table 33 indicates the immense importance of the soil-drainage^ 
factor in relation to labor income. The figures relate to an. 
extensive area in Niagara County. Evidence at hand indicates^ 
that the comparisons are valid elsewhere. On well-drained 
soils the third of the farms having the largest apple enter- 
prise averaged about 1000 apple trees of bearing age, which 
was from 3 to 4 times as many trees per farm as the average 
of the lower third. The labor income, that is what the farmer 
had for his yearns work, averaged $1308. These farms paid 
3 times as well as the smaller third with an average labor 
income of $424. However, the smaller farms on well-drained 
soils paid, on the average, better than farms with large 
apple enterprises on soils not so well drained. 

Sweet cherries seem to thrive best on deep, rich loams of 
the lighter types, sour cherries and plums on the somewhat 
heavier loams. 

The nice adjustments of particular varieties to particular 
soil types have not been thoroughly worked out. A red 
variety will not color as well on the average, nor will fruit 
mature as early in the season on a clay loam as on a lighter soil 
type. The land should possess at least a fair measure of 
fertility as judged by ordinary crop requirements and, unless 



DETERMINING TIME OF PLANTING 173 



TABLE 33 

Effect of Soil Drainage and Size of Orchard on Labor Income 
Newfane-Olcott, Niagara County 





Farms Divided into 3 Groups 




According to the Size of Apple 




Orchard of Bearing Age 


Year 
















Median Averages 




Low 


Middle 


High 




Third 


Third 


Third 


Labor income 








WeU-drained soils 








1933 


$ 516 


$1684 


$ 912 


1934 


604 


640 


1438 


1935 


-214 


84 


-33 


1936 


937 


1766 


4011 


1937 


485 


-51 


20 


1938 


216 


1083 


1502 


Average 


$ 424 


$ 868 


$1308 


Soils not so well drained 








1 OQQ 


$-69 


$-184 


$-14 


1934 


44 


-14 


262 


1935 


-78 


-100 


-227 


1936 


217 


409 


790 


1937 


-56 


-42 


-268 


1938 


-5 


-98 


141 


Average 


$ 9 


$ -5 


$ 114 



irrigation is to be practiced, should hold moisture in top soil 
and subsoil reasonably well. 

4. Determining Time of Planting. Early spring is on the 
whole the best time to plant, It should be done as soon as 



174 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



the soil is in proper condition. There are usually marked 
differences in gro\\i:h between trees planted even two weeks 
apart in favor of the earlier planted trees. It is important 
that the tree have the opportunity to esablish itself while 
moisture is abundant and before the hot dry weather of sum- 
mer. Trees ought to make a considerable amount of growth 
the first season. The grower cannot afford not to have them 
do so. But they will not do this unless planted early and 
unless completely dormant at planting (see Fig. 63). 

In milder sections^ fall planting is successful if the trees are 
mature at digging time, the land is well drained, and the trees 
are set with especial care to insure surface drainage away from 
them. It is usually safer to plant apples and pears in the 
fall than the stone fruits. In the fall planting of peach trees, 
it is common practice to hill up the soil about the trees to 
protect them, removing it in the spring. 

In those sections where either fall or spring planting is 
satisfactory, the grower will be governed principally by his 
labor schedule in determining the time of year to do the work. 

5. Determining Varieties to Plant. The choice of varieties 
often constitutes the first serious mistake of the grower. 

Procedure: 

(a) Consider market to be served. 
(6) Consider market tendencies. 

(c) Consider variety characters and adaptations to various 

regions. 

(d) Consider picking dates of varieties. 

(e) Consider importance of cross-pollination. 

(a) Consider Market to Be Served. This factor has already 
been considered in connection with determining the size of the 
enterprise. The general or wholesale market knows what it 
wants. It is better for the grower to bend his views to meet 
the evident desires of that market than to attempt to educate 
the trade to accept his personal opinions, though all reason 
and logic may appear to be on his side. 



DETERMINING VARIETIES TO PLANT 



V 

175 







f 


1/ 






f 




: i 


i 



i 



a 



W: 






1 





c 



Fig. 63. (a) Yearling apple trees after one yearns growth in the orchard. 
From left to right : trees 1 and 2 planted April 24, roots medium pruned. 
Trees 3 and 4 planted April 1, roots medium pruned. Trees 5 and 6 
planted April 1, roots heavily pruned. Trees 7 and 8 planted April 1, 
roots unpruned. (b) Peach trees after one year in the orchard. All 
trees were planted on April 1. The roots of the first two were heavily 
pruned; the roots of the next two were unpruned. (c) Peach trees after 
one year in the orchard. The first two were planted April 24 after growth 
had started ; the next two were planted April 1 while still dormant ; root 
pruning the same. (Maryland Experiments.) 



176 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



The local market is more responsive. It will accept varieties 
of high quality, even though they may not be well known^ 
especially if the grower enjoys a reputation in the community 
as a skilled and reliable orchardist. This is true also of the 
roadside and motor truck demand now existing about the 
large centers of population. 

(6) Consider Market Tendencies. In planting an orchard 
the grower is embarking upon a long-time enterprise. It is 
important for him to consider not only what the consuming 
public wants now, but what it is likely to want when his trees 
are in bearing. He should take account of any pronounced 
trends or tendencies that will aid in forecasting market de- 
mands. See Tables 21, 22 and 23, pages 100, 101, and 103. 

The tendency is undoubtedly tow^ard higher inherent 
quality. The tremendous and growing popularity of Delicious 
and Mcintosh apples, for instance, is indicative of this fact. 
Growers cannot supply higher quality, however, than the 
public is ready to pay for. Some varieties of high quality 
would be grown to a greater extent commercially if they 
were not so expensive to grow by , reason of light or tardy 
bearing, uneven ripening, high proportion of low-grade fruit; 
susceptibility to cold, insect injury, or disease; shortness of 
life, tendency toward bruising, or kindred ailments. The 
grower must consider all these items in making up his list, but 
must give quality a higher rating than in years past. Red 
varieties of apples, as a rule, sell better than green or yellow 
kinds. 

(c) Consider Variety Characters and Adaptations to 
Various Regions. The best guide is the experience of the 
section in which the fruit is to be grown. Latitude is an 
indication, but variations in elevation may nullify the value 
of this as a guide. 

The length of season required to bring a variety to maturity 
seems to be a most important factor in the distribution of apple 
varieties. 



DETERMINING VARIETIES TO PLANT 



17 



Studies made by the United States Department of Agri- 
culture indicate that the different varieties of apples require 
rather definite periods of time following full bloom to reach 
the correct stage for picking and that these periods do not 
vary greatly from year to year. For some of the important 
commercial varieties these periods, dating from the time the 
first petals begin to fall, are: 



Days 

Yellow Transparent 60- 65 

Mcintosh 125-130 

Cortland 130 

Rhode Island Greening . . 140-145 

Jonathan 140-145 

Grimes 140-145 



Days 

Baldwin 145 

Delicious 145-150 

Ben Davis 150-155 

Rome Beauty 160-165 

Stayman 165 

Winesap 165-170 



This does not mean that the grower of Mcintosh, for 
instance, should pick his apples in exactly 125 days from 
date of full bloom. It does mean that he can compute the 
picking period closely in advance, make his plans accordingly, 
and then vary the dates in accordance with his own condi- 
tions and the other factors affecting the date of picking. 

The grower should study the characteristics of the different 
varieties that he has under consideration for planting. Some 
varieties of superior quality, bring high prices, come into 
bearing later than others under the same cultural practices. 
Some tend to bear a crop in alternate years (biennial) , or are 
unusually susceptible to such diseases as scab, cedar rust, 
fire blight, etc. Varieties may be hardy and resistant to cold, 
or susceptible to it; they may normally mature a large pro- 
portion of their crop that will grade w^ell, or that will be in- 
ferior in size and color. Some are so tender as to require 
the most careful handling to avoid bruising. 

New varieties should prove themselves strongly before 
the grower permits them to displace the profitable veterans 
of years in his planting list. 

In case of apples, the summer and early varieties have a 



178 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



larger place in some sections than others. In New York 
and Ohio, winter varieties hold chief place. In southern 
New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland, they share honors with 
Yellow Transparent, Starr, Oldenburg, Williams, and other 
early sorts. In general, summer or early varieties are meet- 
ing heavy competition from other fruits. Lists of varieties 
for various regions are given under General Information. 

(d) Consider Picking Dates of Varieties, The greatest 
rush of work in the orchard usually comes at harvest time. 
Choose enough varieties to give a good distribution of labor 
through the harvest season, but keep in mind that three or 
four varieties for 50 acres, making possible quantity ship- 
ments of each varietv, are much better than ten varieties. 
With a larger acreage, or for a local and special trade, the 
number might be increased. A common mistake of the be- 
ginner is to select too many varieties. 

(e) Consider Importance of Cross-Pollination, Some 
varieties are self-sterile. Some varieties are intersterile, that 
is, the pollen of one variety will not fertilize the blossoms of 
the other variety. Other factors, including the weather at 
blossoming time, enter in. The matter is presented fully in 
Chapter VIII, ^Tollination." It is only necessary to say 
here that it is not advisable to plant a single variety in a large 
block. It is not necessary or desirable to mix varieties in the 
row. Plant several rows of a single variety, probably not 
less than two or more than four, and alternate with at least 
one row of another variety of the same, or an overlapping, 
blooming period. 

6. Determining Planting Distances and Planting Plan. 
The grower should plant his trees at such distances that they 
may have the opportunity for development in accordance 
with the best known standards and that he may carry on the 
necessary orchard operations to advantage. He should fol- 
low a planting plan or arrangement that will conserve the use 
of his land, or that will give greatest economy and eiBSciency 
in care and management. 



DETERMINING PLANTING DISTANCES AND PLAN 179 



Procedure: 

(a) Consider size of mature trees. 

(6) Consider advisability of fillers. 

(c) Consider merits of various planting plans. 

(a) Consider Size of Mature Trees, Growers have difS- 
culty in visualizing the amount of space needed by the tree at 
maturity. At least 75 percent of the present commercial 
orchards are examples of too close planting. What con- 
stitutes adequate space may be defined only when the region, 
the soil, and the variety are known. Fruit trees grow much 
larger in some sections than in others. A Baldwin tree on 
strong soil in New York will use 50 feet at maturity. In 
the scantier soil of New England, 40 feet or even less is 
enough space for it. Wealthy, Yellow Transparent, Ben 
Davis, Wagener, or Jonathan do not require as much space 
in any section as do York Imperial, Stayman Winesap, Mc- 
intosh, or Rhode Island Greening. The Morello cherry needs 
less space than Montmorency. Table 34 is an approxima- 
tion only, with emphasis on the greater distances. 

TABLE 34 

Planting Distances for Permanent Trees 

Feet Feet 



Apple 35 to 50 Sour cherry 20 to 25 

Pear 22 to 30 Sweet cherry 25 to 35 

Quince 18 to 20 Plum and prune 18 to 25 

Peach and apricot 20 to 25 



(b) Consider the Advisability of Fillers. A filler is a tree 
inserted in the orchard to supplement the income from the 
orchard until the permanent trees need all the space. Some 
growers prefer to secure this income by growing annual crops 
between the permanent trees, instead of using fillers. A filler 



180 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



may be of the same kind and variety as the permanent or it 
may not. 

In sections where the peach may be grown commercially, 
it has frequently been used for interplanting in the apple 
orchard. However, sentiment against the plan, based on com- 
mercial experience, is growing strongly. With increasing use 
of sod culture for apples and better methods of fertilization, 
pruning, and of borer control, all contributing to longer life, 
the peach may best be planted alone. 

Sour cherries may be used as fillers. Pears, excepting of 
the type of Kieffer, LeConte, or Garber, should not be in- 
terplanted with apples because of the danger of fire blight, 
difficult enough to control in some varieties of apples at best. 

If apple trees are planted at the maximum distances, there 
are some apparent advantages in using the same variety as 
filler. The first choice for a filler is a desirable variety of 
apple that is a small grower and comes into bearing quickly. 

Fillers increase the diSiculty of cultivation, spraying, and 
other orchard operations. The chief objection that may be 
urged against them, however, is that they seldom are removed 
before they have interfered with and retarded the develop- 
ment of the permanent trees. This is a criticism of the grower 
rather than the system, but the temptation to leave the filler 
^'just another year'' is very real and strong, a fact that may well 
be faced at the outset. 

In general, if there is a profitable market for annual crops, 
or a place for them in the system of farm management, and if 
land is available at a reasonable figure, the orchardist may 
well spread his trees over more acres, adopting an extensive 
rather than intensive method of planting. 

Bush and small fruits, as grapes, currants, gooseberries, 
and strawberries, are interplanted between trees in certain 
sections, permitting high returns per acre and intensive use 
of the land. The plan has its disadvantages, among which are 
difficulty in spraying and other operations, and frequent over- 
crowding and interference before the plantings are removed. 



DETERMINING PLANTING DISTANCES AND PLAN 181 



(c) Consider Merits of Various Planting Plans, The 
grower should decide upon his planting plan before ordering 
his trees. Given the distance between the trees, the plan or 
arrangement will determine the number required for a given 
area. 

The square system is widely used. The trees are equal 
distances apart and at right angles to each other, with a tree 
on the corner of each square. Simplicity in laying out and ease 
of cultivation and spraying characterize this arrangement. If 
the trees are planted too closely, it is easy also to thin them 
out by removing alternate trees. 

The square system is the most desirable if fillers are to 
be used. With a permanent tree on each corner of the square, 
a filler or semi-permanent may be placed in the center of the 
square. Thus, if the permanent trees are 40 feet apart, the 
semi-permanents will be 28^/4 feet from each permanent. This 
is known as the quincunx method. Additional fillers may be 
placed in both directions if desired, making all trees 20 feet 
apart. 

The square system may be modified by making the rows 
farther apart from east to west than from north to south, 
permitting the maximum access of sunlight to the trees and 
constituting what is sometimes called the rectangular system, 
as distinguished from the square method. 

The hexagonal or triangular system brings the permanent 
trees in the adjacent row not opposite the trees in the first row 
adjoining, but opposite the center of the spaces between the 
trees. .The trees are the same distance apart as in the square 
system, but space is saved and more trees may be planted 
per acre. Thus, the square system, 40 by 40, gives 27 trees 
per acre, whereas the hexagonal system, 40 by 40, gives 32 
trees per acre. This system is a little more difficult to lay out 
than the square system and is not so well adapted to the use 
of fillers. 

Special systems developed to meet local conditions may be 
required where the land is steep, the topography irregular, or 



182 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



the soil inclined to wash badly. Trees may be planted accord- 
ing to the contour of the land, such cultivation as is done 
being across the slope rather than up and down it. Such 
an arrangement, however, does not contribute to convenience 
or efficiency from the commercial standpoint. 

Table 35 gives the number of trees per acre at given dis- 
tances, depending upon the plan of planting: 

TABLE 35 



Number of Trees Per Acre at Given' Distances 
According to Plan Used 



Distance 
Apart 
in Feet 


Number of Trees 
per Acre * 


Distance 
Apart 
in Feet 


Number of Trees 
per Acre * 


Square 


Hexagonal 


Square 


Hexagonal 


18 


134 


154 


35 


35 


41 


20 


108 


124 


40 


27 


32 


22 


90 


104 


45 


22 


25 


25 


70 


80 


50 


17 


20 


30 


48 


55 









* Obtained by dividing 43,560, the number of square feet in an acre, by the land 
area devoted to each tree (in the square system the area of the square, in the hexagonal 
system the area of the parallelogram) . Slight variations from this table will be encoun- 
tered in actual practice, depending on space left at ends, sides, etc. The quincunx sys- 
tem will usually accommodate about 75 percent more trees than the square system, or 
if the number of rows and trees in the row are the same for fillers as for permanents, the 
quincunx system will double the number of trees. 

Plenty of space for turning should be reserved at the ends 
of all rows. The amount will be influenced by the presence of 
fences, hedgerows, etc. Usually more than one-half the dis- 
tance between permanent trees, or about 30 to 35 feet, should 
be left at the ends of the rows to facilitate orchard operations. 

7. Purchasing Trees. The grower is now ready to place his 
order for trees. This should be done well in advance while 



PURCHASING TREES 



183 



the best stock is available. Trees for spring planting should 
be ordered during the preceding fall or early vvinter. 

Procedure: 

(a) Consider age and grade of trees. 

(6) Consider sources from which trees may be obtained. 

(a) Consider Age and Grade of Trees. The age of trees is 
measured by the age of the top without regard to the age of 
the root. Since our standard varieties do not come true from 




(Washington Nursery Go.) 

Fig. 64. Budded Bartlett pear trees beginning their second year of 
growth in a Washington nursery. 



the seed, it is necessary to resort to budding or grafting to ob- 
tain them. Seedlings are grown from the seed or pit for one 
year, either in France or the United States. They may be dug 
in the fall, root grafted to the desired variety in the winter, 
and set in the nursery row in the spring; or, as is the more 
common practice, the seedlings may be transplanted to the 



184 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



I 



nursery row in the spring and budded in late July or August 
to the desired variety. In the latter case, the bud does not 
begin to grow until the following spring. Peaches constitute 
an exception in that they are grown from pits in this country 
and are budded the first season. In Southern sections, they 
are sometimes budded in June, the buds grow at once, and the 
resulting trees are known as Jime buds. The age of trees in 

the nursery trade relates to the age 
of the graft or bud from the time 
it begins to grow on the stock. The 
process of budding and grafting is 
more fully described in the chapter 
entitled ^Tropagating Fruit Plants." 

Peach trees are sold at one year 
of age (Fig. 65), except June buds^ 
which are younger. Sweet cherry 
trees, somewhat difficult to trans- 
plant, may best be purchased at one 
year of age, though many are sold 
at two years. Apples, pears, ^'sour 
cherries and plums are commonly 
sold when two years old (Tig. 66). 
Older trees should not be purchased 
for commercial purposes. The shock 
of transplanting them is greater than 
for younger trees, and their prolonged stay in the nursery row 
reduces their vigor. 

There is an increasing demand by growers for strong one- 
year apple trees, and to a less extent for one-year trees of the 
other fruits commonly sold at two years of age. Such trees 
cost a little less than two-year trees, transportation charges 
are lower, they stand transplanting better, and start into 
gro^i:h sooner. It costs less to set them because they can be 
handled more easily and do not require so large a hole for 
the roots. The chief consideration, however, in the apple 
is that, since the one-year tree comes as a straight whip, the 



Fig. 65. Peach trees show- 
ing the various sizes avail- 
able for planting. Those 
just at the left of the meas- 
uring stick are popular. 



PURCHASING TREES 



185 



grower may form the head at any height and in any way that 
he chooses. The two-year trees, on the other hand, come with 
side branches already formed. The grower must either select 
the foundation for the head from them, or if the branches are 
placed too closely together, he must remove part of them and 




Fig. 66. (a) Well-grown one-year-old Stayman 
Winesap apple trees. (6) Good two-year-old 
trees of the same variety. 



develop the head over again. A nurseryman may develop a 
better head on a tree than an inexperienced grower, but the 
skillful grower who will give the matter attention may well 
purchase the one-year tree. Trees planted side by side at one 
and two years of age cannot be distinguished in the orchard 
four or five years later, so far as size is concerned. 



186 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



Trees are sold as large, medium, and small, or XXX, XX, 
and X, respectively, with the height and caliper given. Varie- 
ties differ greatly as to habit of growth and size at a given age. 
The XXX is in greatest demand. Nothing less than the medium 
size should be selected, as the small trees are often stunted and 
lacking in vigor. Abnormally large or overgrown trees have 
very little to commend them. 

Dwarf trees have little place in the commercial orchard. 
They have not justified the claims that have been made for 
them. Although some of them come into bearing noticeably 
ijarlier than standard trees, they are easily uprooted and 
must be planted so closely, in order to obtain a satisfactory 
yield per acre, as to interfere seriously with cultural opera- 
tions. On small areas and for the amateur they are worth 
consideration. 

Pedigree trees do not have the virtues implied by the name. 
The term implies that nursery trees have been propagated from 
selected strains of the variety that possess higher qualities of 
color, productivity, etc., than the average of the variety and 
that these characters will be transmitted. Such differences 
w^hen traced or tested under controlled experimental conditions 
seem due to soil or climatic factors, or to variations in man- 
agement, and not to characters that can be transmitted by 
budding or grafting, except in case of bud sports. 

It is well to propagate nursery stock by using buds or scions 
from bearing trees, not to perpetuate special characters of the 
individual tree but to insure trueness to name. 

There are severe limitations on the extent to which nursery- 
men can use propagation wood from bearing trees. The an- 
nual growths are often short, the buds may be w^eak, and the 
lime and effort expended in securing satisfactory propagation 
w^ood may greatly increase the cost of propagation. 

Improvement in fruit varieties must come primarily not 
through change in existing varieties, but through the discovery 
of variants, or sports, and the scientific breeding by crossing 
of varieties we already possess. Among the sports or mutations 



PURCHASING TREES 



187 



in apples may be mentioned Gallia Beauty and Red Rome 
(both strains of Rome Beauty) , Starking (Red Delicious) , Red 
Gravenstein, Red Duchess, Black Stayman Winesap, and Red 
Spy. The origin of some of these is so obscure that they may 
be seedlings rather than sports. Among new apple varieties 
obtained as the result of scientific breeding programs are the 
Cortland, Early Mcintosh, and others originated at the New 
York Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva and many by 
Macoun in Canada and by Beach in Iowa. The New Jersey 
Station has bred a considerable number of promising peach 
varieties, and the Geneva Station has developed the Sheridan 
grape and many varieties of small fruits. The United States 
Department of Agriculture has done work along similar lines. 

Certified Trees. Some nurseries are now advertising "cer- 
tified" trees for sale at prices slightly in excess of the regular 
charges for trees of the same age and grade. The term as used 
here means that these trees have been examined in the nursery 
row by ofiicial agents and have been certified as being true to 
name. 

Some nurserymen and experienced tree growers have long 
been able to identify many varieties from their appearance 
as they grow in the nursery. The shape and manner of growth 
of the tree, color of bark, and appearance of the leaves are 
all factors. 

The Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station has 
made an extended study of the leaves of apple trees. It has 
established that leaves on wood of the current season^s growth ^ 
especially those occurring on the middle portions of such wood, 
are very important and dependable factors in identification. 
Injured or malformed leaves or those growing on interior 
shoots or on undernourished trees are not typical. 

The appearance of the petiole or leaf stalk and the angle 
which it makes with the parent branch are helpful. The size 
and shape of the leaf, the shape of the leaf tip, etc., bending 
or folding of the leaf blade, and of the margin, and especially 
the serrations along the leaf edges are determining factors- 



188 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



The thickness of the leaf, its network of veins, its pubescence 
or hairiness on the undersurf ace, and its color are supplemental 
factors. 

The Horticultural Experimental Station of Vineland, On- 
tario, Canada, has made similar determinations for pears, 
plums, peaches, and cherries, and the Minnesota Experimental 
Station for plums and raspberries. 

(6) Consider Sources from Which Trees May Be Obtained. 
Trees grown north or south, east or west, of the location where 
they are to be used are no better and no worse by reason oi 
that fact. There is no merit, however, in assuming extra trans- 
portation charges or inviting loss or damage due to extended 
periods or delays in transit. 

Purchase from a reputable concern. Trees at bargain 
prices are usually expensive investments. Specify a good, 
well-grown tree and expect to pay what it is worth. Purchase 
subject to inspection before acceptance, and specify that no 
substitutions in the order are to be made without written 
consent. 

It is good practice to visit the nursery and make a personal 
selection where possible. If the nursery is near by, the trees 
may be delivered or called for by truck when the field is ready 
for planting, avoiding delays in transit and storage of the 
trees at the farm. 

8. Caring for Trees on Arrival. Inspect all stock care- 
fully on arrival. Check varieties, number, and grade. Reject 
all trees showing evidence of crown gall, unless it can be easily 
pruned off, hairy root, severe aphis injury on the roots, or of 
winter killing as indicated by brittleness of the wood and dis- 
coloration of the tissues when branch or trunk is broken. 

If the trees are in good condition and are to be planted 
within two or three days, they may be put on the cellar bottom 
in the basement or storage shed, out of the sun, soaked thor- 
oughly with w^ater, and covered with blankets or straw. 

If there must be delay in planting, the trees should be 



CARING FOR TREES ON ARRIVAL 



189 



heeled in at once, preferably on the north side of a building, 
or on a slope away from the sun to retard development of the 
buds (Fig. 67) . Plow out a deep furrow or trench, separate 
the trees, which come in bundles of ten, and place them in a 
sloping position against the furrow side of the trench, plow 
a furrow back over the roots, finishing with a shovel to insure 
exclusion of air from the base of each tree. Another row of 
trees may now be placed in the second furrow and so on. 




(Missouri Exp. Station) 



Fig. 67. One-year apple trees heeled in. If they are to be left for an 
extended period, the bundles should be opened and the trees distributed 
more evenly along the trench. 

The roots may be pruned before heeling the trees, avoiding 
the necessity of taking time to do this at planting. Torn and 
broken ends and long straggling roots may be clipped off. 
Root fibers which are so abundant as to prevent thorough 
packing of the soil about the roots may be thinned out. There 
is evidence, however, that very little root pruning should be 
done. That which seems necessary may be done very rapidly 
with a pair of hand pruners. 



190 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



9. Preparing Field for Planting. 

Procedure: 

(a) Preparing the soil. 

(6) Determining location of trees. 

(a) Preparing the Soil. Plow orchard land as early in the 
spring as soil conditions permit. This will insure both settling 
of the ground before planting and conservation of the moisture, 
which the trees will need. Plowing in the fall and working the 
land in early spring are desirable in many sections. It is 
better thattthe land should have been devoted to a tilled crop 
the year previous rather than that trees be planted on a freshly 
turned sod, though the latter is by no means to be disallowed 
under all conditions. If planting on sod, fall plowing is par- 
ticularly desirable, so that the soil may settle and disintegra- 
^on of the sod may begin before the trees are set. 

Peaches should always be set on tilled land. In some sec- 
tions extensive apple orchards have been developed under 
conditions that do not permit tillage, and some growers use 
other systems of soil management through preference. These 
are described in the chapter ^^Managing Orchard Soils.'' It is 
best to set in tilled land whenever possible, regardless of the 
type of soil management followed later. 

(b) Determining Location of Trees. A simple method of 
staking a field that is fairly level is indicated in Fig. 68, show- 
ing trees to be set 40 by 40 feet on the square, 30 feet to be 
allowed on the ends of the rows beyond the last trees for turn- 
ing, given one straight side of the field, as a road or line fence 
(which side does not matter) . 

Turn a right angle at one corner of straight boundary or base line, as 
indicated by m, in the triangle, Fig. 68, by measuring 60 feet along the 
base line and parallel with it, and setting stake 1; measure 80 feet 
approximately at right angles to m-1, and set stake at n. Then change 
the position of n until the distance n-1 is exactly 100 feet without alter- 
ing other dimensions (smaller triangles as 30-40-50 may be used, but the 
chance for error on the shorter distances is greater). 



PREPARING FIELD FOR PLANTING 



191 



Referring now to the large map of the field and turning the right 
angle at point A, project lines on two field lines, but not where trees 
are to stand. From point A, set the first stake, 30 feet along the line 
A-B, marking the location of the outer row. Set the remaining stakes: 
40 feet apart. The last stake should be 30 feet from B. Set the first 



Highway or Straight Boundary 



Method of Turning Right Angle 



Highway or Straight Boundary 



,A x30*>( 40' X X K X X Xj-x X X X X x40'x30'x Q 
^ ! I ■ ^ A ^ 

X- -o O O— -O O O O-x-O O- - -O- - -O O O O- -X 

Outer ilree Row ! ^ 




40' X 3tfx C 



Fig. 68. Method of staking the orchard. Where 
two lines of sight cross over the stakes is the place 
for a tree, o indicates some of these points. 



stake along A-D, 30 feet from A, and all other stakes 40 feet apart, 
excepting the last stake which should be 30 feet from D. 

At B, erect another right angle, and set line B-C along the boundary. 
Close the end C-D, testing to see that A-B and C-D check as to length 
and altering points C and D, until the measurements are the same. This 
may make necessary slight adjustments of the stakes in lines A-D and 
B-C. Disregard irregular planting areas that fall outside the plan, as 
these may be filled in easily after the main area is set. 



192 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



The boundaries of the orchard are now determined with no stake that 
is in the way of a tree. It is now necessary to put in additional rows of 
stakes through the interior of the field so that, standing within the field, 
two stakes may be seen in line in each direction. 

Set E-F and H-I and as many more rows in each direction as may be 
necessary, turning right angles as before. Do not set in tree rows, but 
between them as indicated. 

Ordinary building lath are very satisfactory for stakes. 
For rolling land, they may be spliced together to give greater 
height for the hollows. A white cloth may be wrapped around 
them or they may be dipped in w^hitewash when used for long 
distances or against a background that makes it difficult to 
see them. 

Point W indicates the position of a corner tree. Any point 
in the field where two lines of sight cross is the place for a tree. 
Small stakes may be set where each tree is to go, or the place 
may be determined by sighting-in the reversed shovel as a 
stake, digging the hole at once. The latter method is satisfac- 
tory only with careful men. When a stake is placed a few 
inches out of line and is used in turn for sighting, the error 
accumulates as the length of the row increases and may be 
considerable at the end. In order to reduce the possible error, 
it is best to plant the trees or set the interior stakes in one di- 
rection only, rather than to work across the field and back, 
planting or staking in both directions. 

Two men may set the outer stakes. A third man, who can 
stay back and do the sighting while the others are measuring 
the distances, will save much walking back and forth. Three 
are needed for such lines as E-F and H-I, two men sighting in 
the stakes, one in each direction, while a third sets the stakes 
as they indicate. If stakes are to be set at the location of each 
tree, three men will do the work much faster and more accu- 
rately than a smaller number. Almost any number of gangs 
may work without interference in a field so staked, and the 
original guide stakes are always in place until the job is done. 

There are many variations of the foregoing plan. The outer 



PREPARING FIELD FOR PLANTING 



193 



stakes may be set where the trees are to go and then removed 
only after the other trees have been planted. In Southern 
sections, a colored man with one mule, given a few stakes to 
go by, will plow out furrows and cross furrows very accurately. 
A team may be used, sighting between the horses. In large 
plantings and on rough land, the plan outlined may be too 
laborious and expensive, although the work, 
once the boundaries are established, goes 
quickly. Wire marked at the proper dis- 
tances, or measuring sticks as long as the 
distance between trees, may be used. Cord 
is not satisfactory for measurements be- 
cause of its tendency to stretch with use 
or to shrink when wet. Steel or linen tapes 
are preferable. 

Whatever the plan used, time taken in 
the interest of accuracy when planting is 
time well spent. Trees much out of line, 
as in Fig. 69, are not merely an eyesore, 
they interfere seriously with orchard op- 
erationSj especially in closely planted or- 
chards. A discrepancy of a few inches will 
gradually disappear and be ^'taken up^^ by 
the tree in the course of development. 

The planting plan for the hexagonal sys- 
tem does not vary except that distances be- 
tween rows, not between trees, are different 
and the staking must correspond. A wire 
triangle, each side representing the distance 
between trees, with rings at the corners 
help. 

In working on uneven ground, keep the measuring tape or 
device level rather than following the contour of the ground. 

It will save time to map the outer boundaries and inner 
guide stakes on paper before undertaking to lay out the field. 
Use the actual distances of planting adapted to a convenient 




Fig. 69. Although 
this orchard was 
planted on level 
land, making it 
easy to lay out the 
rows accurately, 
this view along a 
row indicates little 
effort to do so. 

for staking will 



194 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



scale, and proceed in accordance with the conditions that must 
be met. Every step will then be thoroughly understood be- 
fore the work begins. 

10. Planting the Trees. 

Procedure and Factors: 

(a) Preparing the hole. 
(6) Handling the trees. 

(c) Setting the trees. 

(d) Subsequent treatment. 

(a) Preparing the Hole, Dig a hole that will accommo- 
date the root system. Even though the rows have been plowed 
out, the hole must be finished with a shovel. Make it corre- 
spond to the root system of the tree and deep enough so that 
the crook at the base of the tree will be just below the ground 
level. If the subsoil is poor, dig the hole deep enough so that 
some moist and fertile top soil may be put in the bottom. 
Keep the top soil separate from the subsoil so that it may be 
used about the roots. 

Dynamite may have value in orchard planting under some 
conditions. It may break up a shallow layer of hardpan, 
affording a better medium for the roots. If the hardpan is 
deep, dynamite will merely make a pocket where water will 
settle. It should not be used when the soil is wet and, in gen- 
eral, the hole should be blasted well in advance of planting. 
It will take nearly as much time after blasting to prepare the 
hole for planting as it would have taken to dig the hole in the 
first place. It is thus not a cheap method of putting trees 
in the ground. In general, if the soil needs dynamiting to 
make it suitable for tree planting, it would be better to plant 
on a field that did not need such treatment. If dynamite is 
used, follow the directions of the manufacturers. 

Recent experiments have shown that, by mixing a 12-quart 
pail of wet pulverized peat moss with the soil which is placed 
around the roots at planting time, a much more vigorous tree 
results at the end of the second year's groT\^h. This material 



PLANTING THE TREES 



195 



holds moisture in reserve if dry weather follows, and it im- 
proves tne condition of the soil if the weather is wet. It may 
be that this will become standard planting practice, espe- 
cially on soils low in organic matter. 

Do not put manure or commercial fertilizers in the hole. 
Manure may cut off the roots from subsoil moisture and is 
used to much better advantage as a mulch on the surface after 
the tree is set. Commercial fertilizers may be used most 
eflSciently as indicated in the chapter '^Managing Orchard 
Soils." 

(6) Handling the Trees. Keep the roots protected from the 
sun and wind by covering them with a wet blanket or by 
putting the trees in a tub of water on a wagon or stoneboat. 
If the trees are dropped much ahead of the planters, cover 
the roots wdth a little soil to protect them until the planting 
gang arrives. Growers who have purchased good trees are 
often very careless in protecting the roots during the planting 
operation. 

(c) Setting the Trees, Set the tree so that the lower 
branches which are to be retained for the head, or the crook 
of the central leader, are toward the prevailing wind. The 
wind will gradually push these branches upward toward the 
center of the tree, so that they will not bend toward the 
ground. If planting on a slope, the lower branches to be 
retained should be on the downward side, to give them as 
great an elevation from the ground as possible. For one-year 
trees which are straight whips, these directions do not hold 
until the head is being formed. 

Sight-in the tree, and throw in two or three shovelfuls of 
moist top soil. Lift and shake the tree gently to work the first 
shovelfuls about the roots. Let one man hold the tree in place, 
tramping the soil firmly about the roots as it is thrown in, not 
by pressing it with his toe, but by treading solidly around the 
tree with both feet in the hole. The most important single 
factor in planting a tree is to plant it firmly. Not only is the 
tree then well anchored from the physical standpoint but also 



196 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



air spaces are reduced and the soil particles and soil moisture 
are in intimate contact with the root system. If the soil is 
wet, less tramping is desirable since the ground will settle 
itself. Fill the hole above ground level to allow for settling, 
and leave the soil loose on top to prevent dr^dng out. 

Often better progress will be made if one gang digs the holes 
and another plants the trees. A trial will determine the most 
eflBcient size of the planting gangs. 

(d) Subsequent Treatment, Do not prune the tops until 
after the orchard is planted. Some branches may be injured 
or broken in the planting operation. Leave them all until the 
job is done. Then one man can go through and prune them 
very rapidly and according to the same plan and standard. 
It may be done any time within two or three weeks after 
planting. Directions are given in the chapter on pruning. 
Opinion differs as to the advisability of pruning fall-planted 
trees before spring. There seems little reason why excess 
branches should not be removed at once. 

To prevent excess evaporation and thus give the trees a 
good start, the young trees are sometimes coated with an 
emulsion of wax. 

Map the orchard as to varieties and their location when 
the planting job is completed. File the map with a copy of the 
order and bill. This will be helpful and interesting later and 
may also be an aid if varieties prove untrue to name. 



GENERAL INFORMATION 

1. Apple Regions and Varieties 

The commercial fruit areas of the United States and Canada are 
quite well defined. Since most sections are now well served by trans- 
portation facilities, the fruit sections are det-ermined chiefly by climatic 
factors and to a less extent by soils. A section may also be adapted to 
the growing of fruit, but better adapted to some other crop. Exten- 
sions of the industry into such sections may be looked for as economic 



GENERAL INFORMATION 



197 



conditions warrant. In general, however, the commercial areas have 
been determined and it is in them or parts of them that most of the 
fruit for market will probably be produced in the future. 

In naming these regions it must be kept in mind that they are not 
adapted in their entirety to fruit production. Local factors enter in, and 
much must be left to judgment and local experience. 

The deciduous fruit regions have been determined largely on the basis 
of apple growing. Although other fruits will not thrive in all the apple 
sections, particularly in the ones with low winter temperatures, yet it is 
a fact that the growing of the other fruits takes place to a large extent 
in the apple regions. Certain peach sections constitute exceptions to 
this statement. 

As has already been pointed out in the section on selection of 
varieties, varieties differ in their adaptation. In defining the fruit sec- 
tions it becomes possible to indicate the varieties of commercial promi- 
nence or promise for them. 

In general, the northeastern states are adapted to fruit growing, and 
it is in these states that the industry first took on the aspects of a com- 
mercial enterprise. Other sections have since come to the fore and are 
providing competition that is both keen and at the same time helpful in 
raising the standards of the industry. 

The chief fruit regions are outlined here without regard to order of 
importance. Commercial rank is somewhat variable, and its emphasis 
is shifting. It may be determined for any period in a general way from 
the census figures of bearing and non-bearing trees and a study of carlot 
shipments. 

1. The New England states, excepting the colder sections of Maine, 
New Hampshire, and Vermont. 

2. New York, comprising the western New York, Hudson Valley, 
and Lake Champlain areas. 

3. Michigan, in the southern half of the state, but also well distributed 
along the eastern shore of Lake Michigan. 

4. Ohio, quite generally distributed with large production in the south- 
eastern counties, along the Pennsylvania line, and about Lake Erie. 

5. Pennsylvania, about large industrial centers, along Lake Erie, and 
in the south-central section forming a part of the Shenandoah-Cumber- 
land region. 

6. New Jersey-Delaware and eastern shore of Maryland. These areas 
are close to large consuming centers. They feature summer and fall 
apples but also grow winter apples. 

7. Shenandoah-Cumberland region, including south-central Pennsyl- 
vania, western Maryland, eastern West Virginia, and Virginia. 



198 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



A southern extension of the area reaches into the mountain sections 
of North Carohna, north Georgia, and northeastern Alabama. The 
Piedmont section, so called, is along the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge 
Mountains in Virginia and is mountainous in character. 

8. Southern Illinois and Indiana. 

9. Ozark region of southwestern Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and 
northwestern Arkansas. There is also a small commercial section in 
northwestern Missouri. 

10. Northwest, including areas in Oregon, Washington, Idaho, western 
Montana, and British Columbia. This territory- produces more than 80 
per cent of all box apples grown in the United States and Canada at the 
present time. Well-known sections are the Okanogan of British Colum- 
bia, the Wenatchee and Yakima Valleys of Washington, and the Hood 
River and Rogue River Vallej's of Oregon. Chemes, primes, and pears 
are grown extensively in some areas, in addition to apples. 

11. California in the Watsonville district, chiefly in Santa Cruz and 
IMonterey Counties and in the Sebastopol area in Sonoma Count3^ 
There is also a commercial development at Yucaipa in San Bernardino 
County. Conditions and varieties in these districts vaiy greatly. The 
box is the market package. 

12. Mountain States including limited areas in Colorado, Utah, and 
New Mexico. The box is used for packing. 

13. Canada, in addition to the area in British Columbia included in 
the Pacific Northwest territoiy, has important sections in the Annapolis 
and other valleys of Nova Scotia and in the Province of Ontario along 
the Great Lakes. Other sections occur in the Provinces of New Bmns- 
wick and Quebec. 

The varieties of apples listed are the major commercial varieties in 
the sections named, at the present time, or show promise of becoming so. 
In selecting a planting list, check the varieties against local experience 
and the recommendations of the local experiment station. Other 
varieties may be worthy of consideration, but may not as yet have 
definitely established their qualifications from the commercial standpoint. 

The fact that certain varieties are dominant in commercial sections 
at the present time is not conclusive evidence that they will remain so. 
Inspection of varieties in non-bearing orchards and in those being 
planted will indicate the trend. In general, the movement is toward 
higher quality as exemplified by the Mcintosh and Delicious t^T^es in 
their respective regions. Red sports or strains of some varieties as 
Red Rome and Gallia Beauty, Starking, Red Duchess (Oldenburg), and 
Red Gravenstein are available and may be preferable to the older forms 
of these varieties. Several introductions of summer apples by the 



GENERAL IXFORMATION 



199 



Geneva (New York) Experiment Station, as Milton, Early Mcintosh, 
and Melba, are worth}' of trial, especially for local trade. 

A indicates summer and early fall apples, when grown in quantities. 

B indicates the late fall and winter varieties. The same variety may 
be a fall apple in one section and a winter variety in another section. 

Variety descriptions with special notes on local behavior are available 
from so many authoritative sources that such descriptions are not in- 
cluded here. 

Check these lists with the state experiment station or college oi 
agriculture. 

NEW ENGLAND 

A — Wealthy, Gravenstein, Oldenburg. B — AIcLitosh, Baldwin, North- 
ern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Delicious, Eameuse. 

NEW YORK 

A — Oldenburg, Wealthy. B — Mcintosh, Baldwin, Rhode Island 
Greening, Northern Sp3', Cortland. 

The planting of Oldenburg, Wagener, Tompkins King, and 
Twenty Ounce is decreasing. Northern Spy, though slow to come 
into bearing, is a desirable variety in favored locationSc 

In the Hudson River Valley the Hst of varieties is much the same 
as for western New York. !McIntosh and Cortland, however, have 
been planted on a larger scale, and Rome, Delicious, Yellow New- 
town, and Red Gravenstein are grown commercially. Jonathan, 
while grown, is decreasing in popularity. To lengthen the Mcintosh 
season in some sections, the Kendall and Macoun are becoming 
quite popular. 

In the Champlain Valley, resistance to cold is a prime factor. 
Mcintosh, Northern Spy, and Fameuse are in the lead. Wealthy, 
Alexander, and Wolf River are also grown. 

MICHIGAN 

Southwestern Michigan 

A — Wealthy. B — Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy, Baldwin, 
Mcintosh, Fameuse, Delicious. 

Oldenburg or Duchess has been extensively grown in Michigan, 
but is not now proving profitable. In northeastern Michigan Northern 
Spy, Mcintosh, and Fameuse predominate. 



300 



ESTABLISHIXG THE ORCHARD 



OHIO 

A — Yellow Transparent. B — Rome Beauty, Baldwin. Rhode Island 
Greening, Mcintosh, Dehcious, StajTnan Winesap. 

PEXXSYLVAXIA 

In the northern haK of the state, varieties are the same as those in 
the western part of Xew York. Southeastern Penns^'lvania forms part 
of the Shenandoah-Cumberland belt and grows the varieties Hsted for 
that region. 

XEW JERSEY, DELAWARE. AXD EASTERX SHORE OF 

MARYLAXD 

A — Yellow Transparent, Starr, Oldenburg. Wealthy, Wilhams. B — 
Sta^Tnan Winesap, Winesap, Dehcious, Rome Beauty, Jonathan, Grimes, 
York Imperial, Baldwin (northern Xew Jersey). 

SHEXAXDOAH-CUMBERLAXD REGIOX 

A — Yellow Transparent, Summer Rambo, Williams, Oldenburg, 
Wealthy, Xorthwestem Greening. B — York Imperial, Stayman Wine- 
sap. Winesap, Rome or Gallia Beauty, Delicious or Starking, Jonathan, 
Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig, or Paragon), Grimes, Ben Davis. 

In some sections of the Piedmont region of Virginia the Yellow 

X^wtown or Albemarle Pippin develops to a high state of perfection. 

SOUTHERX ILLIXOIS AXD IXDIAXA 

A — Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg, Maiden Blush, Benoni. B — ^Wine- 
sap, Sta^TQan Winesap, Jonathan, Kinnard, Rome Beauty, Dehcious, 
Ben Davis. 

OZARK REGIOX 

A — Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg, Ada Red. B — Ben Davis, Gano, 
Jonathan, Stajmaan Winesap, Dehcious. 

XORTHWEST 

B — Winesap, Joi^than, Stayman Winesap, Rome Beauty, Delicious. 

In the Hood River Vallej', Yellow Xewtown and Esopus Spitzen- 
burg are grown extensively. In British Columbia, Mcintosh and 
Xorthem Spy are grown to some extent. 



GENERAL INFORMATIOIN 



201 



CALIFORNIA 
Watsonville District 
B — ^Yellow Newtown, Yellow Bellflower. 

Sebastopol District 

A — Gravenstein. 

Yucaipa District 
B — Rome, Winesap, Delicious, King David. 



MOUNTAIN STATES 

B — Jonathan, Rome, Winesap, Delicious. 

In the higher altitudes, Yellow Transparent, Wealthy, North- 
western Greening and Mcintosh are grown in a limited way. 



CANADA 
Ontario 

A — ^Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg, Wealthy, Alexander, Melba. 
B — Northern Sp3% Mcintosh, Fameuse, Baldwin, Rhode Island Green- 
ing, Delicious, Tolman. 

Some of Macoun's introductions are being tried in a very limited 

way. 

Nova Scotia 

A — Gravenstein. B — Northern Spy, Mcintosh, Golden Russet, Wag- 
ener, Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin, Fameuse. 

New Brunsmick and Quebec 

A — Oldenburg, Alexander, Wolf River. B — Northern Spy, Mcintosh, 
Fameuse. 

2. Peach Regions and Varieties 

Peach districts are identical in many cases with apple districts. They 
do not, however, extend into the colder apple sections, and on the other 
hand they go beyond the southern reaches of the commercial apple 
industry. At the northern limits of peach culture, orchards are oftep 
located adjacent to large bodies of water with their tempering climatic 
influence. The peach belts of New York along the shores of Lake 



202 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



Ontario and in Michigan bordering the lake of the same name are 
illustrations. 

Elberta is the main crop peach at the present time. There is great 
need of other varieties possessing the good features of Elberta, but of 
higher quality and extending the season in both directions. Considerable 
effort is being expended to develop such varieties. The New Jersey- 
Agricultural Experiment Station and the Horticultural Experiment 
Station at Vineland, Ontario, Canada, have already introduced or devel- 
oped several varieties of much promise. 

Freestone varieties with yellow flesh are preferred by the public as 
fresh fruit. 

The Far West prefers yellow clingstone peaches for commercial can- 
ning. Many of the early varieties have white flesh. The white-fleshed 
varieties as a group appear to be more hardy and resistant to cold than 
the yellow varieties. 

The usual commercial orchard consists of two or three varieties in 
addition to Elberta ; an orchard supplying a local market or a roadside 
trade requires a more extended list. 

With the expansion of the southern peach areas, some of the northern 
districts whose crops reach the markets late in the season are declining in 
importance. 

South Haven, Hiley, Belle of Georgia, J. H. Hale, Golden Jubilee, 
Vedette, and Howard Fisher are some of the popular varieties in the 
Northeastern section. 

California is the largest producer of peaches, both in quantity and 
value, of any section of the country. Fruit is grown to be marketed 
in the fresh state, as in other sections, but large quantities are also pro- 
duced for canning and drying. The bulk of the California crop ia 
processed in one way or another before being put on the market. 
Numerous varieties, however, are grown to be sold in the fresh state. 
Although Elberta is grown, it is much less important in California than 
in other commercial sections. 

In the extreme South, including parts of Florida and Louisiana, con- 
ditions are not adapted to the races of peaches to which most commer- 
cial varieties belong, the North China and the Persian. Here varieties 
of the Peen-to and South China races are grown, but not as factors in a 
commercial sense. 

3. Pear Regions and V.\rieties 

California and New York are the principal pear districts of the coun- 
try. Other sections where the industry has attained commercial status 
are New Jersey, Michigan, Delaware, Maryland, Colorado, Washington, 



GENERAL INFORMATION 



203 



and Oregon. Fire blight is the chief enemy of pear culture in most 
sections, and the industry is dying out in some districts because of its 
inroads. 

Bartlett is the standard variety both for the fresh-fruit market and 
for canning. Clapp Favorite, Anjou, Seckel, Bosc, Angouleme (Duchess), 
Clairgeau, Lawrence, and Kieffer are also grown, in New York, New 
Jersey, and Michigan, to a limited extent. Kieffer is much more 
important in New Jersey than in New York, and is the leading variety 
south from New Jersey. Other varieties of the Kieffer type, of com- 
mercial importance in the same districts where Kieffer is the leading 
variety, are Le Conte and Garber. Gorham is a new New York variety 
which is being recommended very highly. 

Bartlett is almost the sole variety in California. In Washington and 
Oregon the planting list is much the same as in the East, omitting 
Seckel but adding Comice, Howell, Hardy and Winter Nelis. 

4. Cherry Regions and Varieties 

Sour cherries are grown commercially in western New York, the 
Hudson Valley in the same state, western Michigan, Ohio along the 
shores of Lake Erie, in the Arkansas River Valley in Colorado, in limited 
areas in Wisconsin and Iowa, and to a less extent in other states. 

The industry is built around Montmorency as the main crop variety 
with Early Richmond to open the season and English Morello to extend 
it beyond Montmorency Ostheim, Dyehouse, and Large Montmorency 
are grown to a limited extent. 

Sweet cherries reach their highest perfection and their greatest 
yields, and are most largely grown, in the Pacific Coast states. They 
are also grown commercially in western Michigan, western New York, 
and the Hudson River Valley. They are less hardy than the sour 
cherries and short-lived in sections not well adapted for them. 

Bing, Lambert, and Napoleon are the chief varieties in the Pacific 
Northwest. The first two varieties are shipped as fresh fruit; Napoleon 
is sold in the fresh state, but is used more extensively for canning. These 
three varieties are both self-sterile and intersterile. They should be 
planted in connection with other varities as indicated in Chapter VIII, 
"Pollination." 

East of the Rocky Mountains, Black Tartarian, Windsor, Schmidt, 
Napoleon, and Yellow Spanish are the leading sweet varieties. 



204 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



5. Plum Regions and Varieties 

Aside from the prune sections on the Pacific Coast, plum culture is 
not carried on in clearly defined areas, but is common in a limited way 
to nearly all sections of the country. In the colder sections as the 
Dakotas and the Great Plains area, varieties derived from the native 
species do best. They are excellent for preserves and cooking, but less 
desirable to eat in the fresh state. In the lower Mississippi Valley the 
native and Japanese varieties do well. From the Potomac River south 
to the Gulf Coast and west in Texas, native, Japanese, and hybrid 
varieties occur. The Damson plums are popular in many sections for 
culinary use. In the eastern states, the European plums are of major 
importance, but Japanese varieties are also grown, among them Abun- 
dance and Burbank. In California and to a less extent in other sections 
where the climate is suited to peach growing, the Japanese varieties do 
well, though European varieties of both plums and prunes are important 
in the Pacific Coast states. Secure the recommendations of the local 
experiment station. Some promising new varieties have been developed. 



6. Quince Regions and Varieties 

New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania are the sections in which the 
quince is produced in commercial quantities. The demand is not large. 
The fruit is used chiefly for jellies, for which it is highly valued. Some 
growers are doing very well with this fruit, but the market may easily 
be over-supplied. Fire blight is often destructive, especially to young 
plantations. 

The chief varieties are Orange, Champion, Rea, Meech, Pineapple, 
and Bourgeat. It is probable that Orange is a group rather than a 
variety name. 

7. Apricot Regions and Varieties 

California is the seat of commercial apricot culture, though this fruit 
is grown in a limited way in many states. The blossoms open early in 
the spring, and frosts are often a limiting factor in its culture. Although 
the fresh fruit of many varieties is desirable, the apricot is used chiefly 
for drying and canning. 

Blenheim, Moorpark, Royal, Tilton, and Newcastle are the chief 
varieties in California. Breda and Harris are desirable in sections where 
hardiness is a prime factor. 



GENERAL INFORMATION 



205 



8. Stocks for Fruit Trees 

There is great variation in stocks for fruit trees, and great need of 
studies to determine the best stock to use for given conditions. Some 
important experimental work in this field is being done by the New 
York Agricultural Experiment Station and should be watched closely. 

At present, the wild French Crab furnishes most of the stocks for 
apples. It comes not only from France but from all Central Europe 
and is exceedingly variable. Many apple seedlings are now grown 
in the United States. Dwarf apples are grown on the stock of the wild 
Paradise apple, and semi-dwarf trees on stock of the Doucin apple, both 
from European sources. 

Pears are grown on wild French pear seedlings ; Japanese and Chinese 
stocks for pears are on trial. Dwarf pear trees are grown on quince roots. 

The quince is commonly grown on stock of the Angers quince, a 
variety which is worth little except as a stock. 

The cherry is budded on stocks of the Mazzard and Mahaleb cherries. 
Mazzard stock has come mainly from Europe in the past but is now 
being grown extensively in this countrj^ also. In some cases seedlings of 
cultivated sweet cherries are sold as Mazzard stock. This causes much 
variation in the results secured. Under favorable conditions Mazzard ^ 
stock gives a larger tree of longer life than does Mahaleb. The stock 
is more susceptible to leaf spot, however, than the Mahaleb. It is 
more difficult to secure a good stand of buds in the nursery. Mahaleb 
roots are more hardy and will succeed under more diverse conditions 
than Mazzard and are less expensive for the nurseryman to grow. In 
the East, at least, growers should insist upon sweet cherries on Mazzard 
roots and should expect to pay more for them. In the West, the Stock- 
ton Morello is used as a dwarfing stock for cherries. Sweet cherries 
on Mahaleb roots are often short-lived, and although sour cherries 
grow quite satisfactorily on Mahaleb roots, recent evidence indicates 
that they also will thrive better on the Mazzard stock. 

The peach is grown on stocks from pits of the wild peaches of 
Tennessee and the Carolinas, and Jrom the seeds of cultivated varieties. 
The former are preferred. Plum stocks are sometimes used for standard 
trees to be planted on heavy land. 

Myrobalan stock of European origin is used almost entirely in the 
East for plums. In the colder sections plums are worked on the hardy 
native plum species. St. Julien plum stock from France is also used 
to some extent for plums, the claim being that it produces longer-lived, 
hardier trees. The Marianna plum stock is used in parts of the South. 
Peach stocks are used sometimes for plums on warm sandy soils, espe- 
cially for the Japanese or Salicina varieties. 



206 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 

1. Visit several leading growers. Determine: 

a. Nature of market served. 

h. Varieties grown in order of importance, 

c. Varieties used for fillers. 

d. Ages at which varieties come into commercial bearing. 

e. Growers' estimate or records of production and value of 

varieties. 

/. Source from which trees are obtained. 

g. Age and grade of trees purchased. 

h. Location of orchards with respect to soil types, elevation with 

respect to surrounding area, soil and atmospheric drainage, 
and direction of slope. 

i. Planting season. 

j. Method of preparation of soil. 
h. Planting plan and distances. 
I. Arrangement of labor for planting. 
m. Method of planting the trees. 

n. Are varieties set in solid blocks or alternated through the 
orchard? 

2. Check varieties grown against recommendations of the local experi- 
ment station for the region. 

3. Check varieties grown from the standpoint of pollination. 

4. Prepare a cost statement for establishing a 50-acre orchard includ- 
ing all factors from the preparation of the field to the planting of the 
trees. 



CHAPTER IV 



GROWTH OF THE TREE AND THE FORMING OF 

FRUIT BUDS 

A thorough knowledge of tree growth, including fruit spurs, 
fruit and leaf buds, is necessary in order properly to spray and 
prune the trees, thin the fruits, and fertilize and manage the 
soil. 

Procedure : 

(a) Consider different kinds of tree growth. 

(6) Determine when length growth ceases. 

(c) Determine when growth in thickness ceases. 

(d) Study and determine the location of leaf buds, fruit buds, 

and fruit spurs. 

(e) Consider the fruiting habits of different fruits. 

(/) Determine the time and manner of fruit-bud formation. 

(a) Consider Different Kinds of Tree Growth, Growth 
takes place following the dormant period in the form of: (1) 
new leafy shoots over the tree; (2) blossoms and fruit forma- 
tion; (3) new spurs (with such fruits as the apple, pear, cherry, 
plum, etc.) ; (4) an increase in growth of the old spurs; (5) bud 
formation; (6) an increase in the circumference of the limbs, 
branches, roots, and trunk; (7) new root growth. 

The large number of new shoots over the tree is the most 
easily seen evidence of growth. The shoots growing from the 
terminal buds are usually called terminal growths. Thus one 
often hears growers remark that their trees have made as much 
as 6, 10, 12, or more inches of terminal growth during a single 
growing season. The number and lengths of terminal growths 

207 



208 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS 



can be used as one measure of tree growth, although their 
thickness and also the increase in the diameter of the branches, 
spurs, and trunks should also be considered. 

(6) Determine When Length Growth Ceases. The time at 
which length growth ceases varies with the different fruits and 
with several other factors. Thus it is common knowledge that 
peach trees normally continue growth in length much later in 
the season than apples, pears, or European plums. The 
length of the growing period for terminal shoots varies with 
many factors such as: (1) age of tree, (2) rainfall, (3) sum- 
mer heat, and (4) to some extent with pruning and soil fer- 
tility. 

Vigorous, young trees normally continue terminal grow^th 
later in the season than old trees. In seasons of abnormally 
heavy rainfall growth may continue much later than in years 
of normal rainfall. Trees which have been pruned heavily 
usually grow later in the season than lightly pruned trees. 
'Heavy applications of nitrogenous fertilizers, especially if 
moisture is abundant, also generally cause trees to grow much 
later than usual. 

The rate of terminal growth is very rapid early in the 
season; it gradually slows down and finally ceases. In most 
years, length growth is completed by the first to the fifteenth 
of July, at least in the northeastern and central-eastern states. 

(c) Determine When Growth in Thickness Ceases, Limbs, 
trunks, roots, and other parts increase in thickness and may 
continue such thickening for a considerable period after length 
growth of shoots has ceased. As long as the bark will peel 
readily, the cambium cells (the thin layer of actively growing 
tissue just insid.e the bark) are probably still dividing and 
growth is continuing. Branches and roots apparently increase 
in thickness even after the cambium cells have ceased to 
divide. 

(d) Study and Determine the Location of Leaf Buds, 
Fruit Buds, and Fruit Spurs. Buds on fruit trees are pro- 
duced in the axils of the leaves on the sides of shoots and spurs 



HABITS OF GROWTH 



209 





Fig. 70. Blossoming 
apple spur starting its 
fourth year's growth. 
An apple has been 
borne at A. 



(lateral buds) and at the tips of shoots, spurs, and branches 
(terminal buds). Leaf buds are those from which a branch 
or spur may grow, and are often more slender and pointed 
than fruit buds. Fruit buds contain 
the unopened flowers, and often rudi- 
mentary leaves as well. Fruit buds of 
the peach, apricot, cherry, and plum 
contain flower parts only, while those 
of the apple, pear, and quince contain 
both leaves and flowers. 

Fruit buds are frequently borne on 
very short growths or branches called 

fruit spurs. The 
fruit spurs of ap- 
ples and pears are 
readily apparent by 
reason of their 
characteristic 
short, crooked, and 

roughened appearance. Fruit spurs of the 

apple and pear normally make only a 

short growth each year, and the same 

^ ^ spur generally bears fruit only in alter- 

FiG. 71. Four-year- . ^tti. 

old apple spur This ^ years. When a spur blossoms, a 
spur fruited at A and thickened cluster base bearing the blos- 
secondary growth from soms and several small leaves is formed 
the cluster base ex- (Fig. 70). Five blossoms usually occur 
tended to 5, termmat- cluster, though the number varies 

ed by a leaf bud. The f^^^ ^^^^^ ^. j^^^ 

next year a straight . , ,P , ^ . . . 

growth was made ^P^^ Usually proceeds from a leaf 

which formed a ter- bud in the axil of one of the small leaves 
minal fruit bud. on the side of this cluster base. This 
side growth is usually spoken of as a 
^'secondary growth,'^ but may consist of only a small side bud. 
This then explains the crooked appearance of such fruit spurs. 
Usually a leaf bud is formed at the terminal of the secondary 



210 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS 



or side growth, especially if the blossoms '^set" fruit. The 
next year this leaf bud, on the secondary growth usually makes 
a straight growth, and then a fruit bud which blossoms the 
following spring is formed at its terminal (Fig. 71). Thus 
the same spur normally bears fruit only, every other year. 

Fruit thinning after the June drop then would hardly be 
expected to cause fruit buds to form again on such spurs for 
the next yearns crop. It will also be seen, later in the chapter, 
that by the time most fruit thinning is done, 
fruit-bud differentiation for the next yearns 
crop is well under way. Fruit spurs generally 
complete their growth in length for the year 
within two weeks after blossoming, although 
increase in diameter continues over a much 
longer period. 

The age of spurs can readily be ascertained 
by observing the ^^rings^^ caused by the scars 
left where the bud scales have fallen off. It 
is easy to determine whether the spurs have 
been productive or whether they have never 
borne by looking for the cluster bases, or for 
scars made where the stems of fruit were re- 
moved from the spur. See Fig. 72. To be 
productive, spurs should make a fair amount 
of new growth each year and have a good 
supply of healthy foliage. 
(e) Consider the Fndting Habits of Different Fruits, 
Apple and Pear, Much of the fruit is borne on spurs in the 
apple and pear, although in certain varieties considerable 
fruit is often borne laterally and terminally on one-year-old 
wood. Fruit spurs are normally produced more abundantly 
on certain varieties than on others. 

In some apple varieties, as Oldenburg, Jonathan, Rhode 
Island Greening, and Wealthy, the spurs often develop fruit 
buds during the same year that the spurs are formed. Such 
Varieties thus bear considerable fruit each year on two-year 




A six- 
apple 
which has 
blossomed 
or borne fruit. 



HABITS OF GROWTH 



211 



sections of wood (or one-year spurs) even while the trees are 
young (Fig. 73) . 

Older bearing trees of practically all varieties, at least in 
Eastern fruit regions, bear on two-year-old sections of wood 
(one-year-old fruit spurs) in the heavy-crop year, but not in 
the light-crop year. 

Many varieties of apples such as York Imperial, Winesap, 




Fig. 73. Young bearing trees of Oldenburg (left) and Wealthy (right). 
Note that spurs of all ages including the one-year-old spurs are blossom- 
ing. The lateral buds on the one-year-old shoots and the terminal buds 
are also blossoming. Biennial bearing trees as York Imperial and Bald- 
win usually blossom in this same way in the heavy-crop year. 



Arkansas, Baldwin, Wagener, and Stayman Winesap often 
form terminal and lateral fruit buds in the year when the trees 
have practically no crop. Such buds blossom the following 
year when the whole tree is blossoming heavily, but often do 
not set fruit, especially on the lateral buds, unless the blos- 
soms on the spurs fail to set. These same varieties, however, 
seldom form terminal and lateral fruit buds to any extent in 
the crop year. 



212 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS 



Other apple varieties as Wealthy, Jonathan, and Olden- 
burg, and pear varieties as Bartlett and Winter Nelis, at least 
in New York, Maryland, and Oregon, do produce a large 
amount of fruit each 3^ear from terminal and 
axillary or lateral buds on one-year wood, par- 
ticularly while the trees are young or are es- 
pecially vigorous. Under such conditions fair 
annual crops are produced. 

Some apple varieties, as Ben Davis, Gano, 
Rome, Winter Banana, Yellow Transparent, 
and Golden Delicious bear much of their first 
few crops on terminal buds of the shoots unless, 
through incorrect pruning, these buds are re- 
moved by '^heading in^' the terminal growth. 

The fruit spurs of pears very closely re- 
semble those of apples in growth and bearing 
habit. 

Peach and Apricot. The peach and apricot 
produce lateral fruit buds on the new shoots and 
to some extent on short growths, which are 
sometimes called spurs: In the peach most of 
the crop is borne on so-called ''one-year growth." 
It will be recalled that with apples much of the 
74. Peach fruit is borne on spurs. Of course, as pointed 
showing out previously, the wood of apple spurs, upon 
which fruit buds are borne, is also only one 
year old. On the vigorous shoots of peacK trees, 



Fig. 

shoot 

triple bud at A. 
Other buds 



shown are side , , mo i , i 

views so only '^^^^^ Duds are generally formed at nearly every 

one of the buds node. See Fig. 74. The two outside buds which 

is s h o w n at usually are well rounded and plump in appear- 

each node. ance are fruit buds, and the center, rather 

pointed bud, as a rule, is a leaf bud. Each 

bud is formed in the axil of a leaf, so that three leaves appear 

to be formed at each node. As a matter of fact a close study 

of the true condition will show that the two-fruit bud leaves 

are really borne on very short branches in the axil of the main 



FRUITING HABITS 



213 



larger leaf. On weaker growths, only single-fruit buds or leaf 
buds may form, and this condition often occurs near the ends 
of shoots of low vigor. 

Apricots usually produce more fruit on so-called "spurs'^ 
than do peaches. Each fruit bud on the peach and apricot 
generally cpens into a single flower. 

Plum, The plum produces fruit buds in a lateral position 
on shoots and on fruit spurs. The European or Domestica, and 
Insititia plums represented by such varieties as Italian prune 
and Shropshire Damson, respectively, usually bear most of 
their fruit on spurs. In general, the fruit buds are borne 
laterally about the spur, and a leaf bud in the axil of a single 
leaf is produced approximately at the spur terminal. As a 
result, plum spurs generally grow straighter than spurs of 
the apple. Some fruit is also borne laterally on the one-year 
shoots as with the peach, but this is more common with the 
Japanese plums. 

With the Japanese varieties such as Abundance and Bur- 
bank, fruit buds are borne laterally on both one-year shoots 
and on spurs. The tips of both shoots and spurs are generally 
terminated with a leaf bud. In contrast to the Domestica and 
Insititia plums, these Japanese plums usually bear heavily 
on the one-year shoots, like the peach. The fruit buds borne 
on the shoots may be single or associated with a leaf bud, or 
sometimes with a leaf bud and another fruit bud as in the 
peach. Occasionally the fruit buds occur in clusters. Fruit 
buds on the spurs occur either singly in the axils of the leaves 
or often in lateral clusters similar to the cherry. Each fruit 
bud generally produces irom one to three flowers. 

Cherry, The cherry produces lateral fruit buds on one- 
year shoots and on spurs. Leaf buds terminate the shoots and 
nearly always the spurs. As a result, growth of the spurs is 
generally continued each year from their terminals, thus re- 
sulting in relatively straight spurs. With sweet cherries much 
of the crop is borne on spurs, although some fruit is produced 



214 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS ' 

laterally on one-year wood. On trees making a vigorous termi- 
nal growth, few lateral fruit buds are found on the one-year 
growth, however, and these are generally near the base. The 
spur fruit buds may occur singly around the spur, but often are 
found in a whorl or cluster about the terminal leaf bud. 

With sour cherries, fruit buds are freely produced on both 
fruit spurs and one-year wood. On terminal growths up to 7 
or 8 inches, nearly every lateral bud is a fruit bud. As a 
result, sour cherries produce a great deal of fruit on one-year 
wood, like the peach and Japanese plum, although the fruit 
buds appear singly in the cherry. If all the lateral buds on 
cherry shoots are fruit buds, no leaf buds are then available 
from which new spurs can be developed, and this wood remains 
bare of spurs and fruits in the future. It is thus advisable to 
produce vigorous shoots on the cherry, so that some of the 
lateral buds formed will be leaf buds from which fruit spurs 
can develop. Trees v/ith a good spur system generally pro- 
duce more fruit and the spur buds are more resistant to cold. 
Fruit buds on the spurs occur singly or in clusters. Each 
fruit bud usually produces from one to three flowers. 

Quince, The quince produces terminal and lateral fruit 
buds on one year-wood. Growth from the fruit buds is some- 
what different from that of the fruits previously described. 
Instead of opening into a short cluster base with several blos- 
soms, like the apple, the terminal fruit bud of the quince, 
makes a short, leafy, growth of one to several inches, and a 
single flower is then unfolded. Lateral fruit buds formed 
on the shoots of the previous season's growth may also produce 
short growths and then blossom. Fruit buds for the next 
year's crop are produced terminally and laterally on short 
growths, which arise from either the bearing or non-bearing 
shoots. 

(/) Determine the Time and Manner of Fruit-Bud Forma- 
tion, Fruit buds are formed the year previous to their open- 
ing. At some time during the early summer, after the buds 
are formed, differentiation occurs inside of the buds which 



FRUITING HABITS 



215 



determines whether a bud will remain a leaf bud or become a 
fruit bud. With some fruits, buds may contain both leaves 
and flowers. 

Apple. In general, differentiation in the apple starts about 
the last part of June or the first part of July, but some buds 
are differentiated later in the season. 

The exact time of differentiation varies somewhat with the 
variety, locality, pruning and fertilizer treatment, season, and 
other factors. Not all buds on the tree differentiate at the 
same time. Normally spur buds are the first to differentiate, 




(Virginia Exp. Station) 

Fig. 75. Showing differentiation and development of flower buds of the 
Oldenburg apple in Virginia, (a) June 30. (6) October 21. (c) January 6. 



followed about three weeks later by the lateral buds, and 
finally by the terminal buds at the ends of the shoots. 

The sepals are generally the first noticeable parts to de- 
velop, and these are commonly followed by the petals, stamens, 
and pistils in the order named. Thus there is a gradual de- 
velopment of the various parts throughout the summer, and 
by the latter part of October the various parts of the flower 
within the bud are quite distinct (Fig. 75). Only minor 
changes occur during the winter, but the cells (pollen mother 
cells), from which the pollen is eventually formed, gradually 



216 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS 




(Virginia Exp. Station) 



Fig. 76. Showing advanced stages in the development of flower buds of 
the peach, plum, cherry, and pear: (a) peach bud, January 6; (b) plum 
bud, January 20; (c) cherry bud, April 1; (d) pear bud, March 17. Note 
that all the flower parts are developed and simply await the opening 
of the buds to expand into flowers. 



TREE PHYSIOLOGY 



217 



develop, other changes occur, and toward spring the ovary 
enlarges and ovules are formed. By early spring all th« 
flower parts are developed and simply await the opening of 
the buds to expand into flowers. 

Pear. Differentiation in the pear usually starts about the 
middle of July and proceeds much the same as in the apple. 
The order of differentiation of the different fruit buds is like-- 
wise quite similar to that of the apple. 

Peach. Most investigators report that the first noticeable 
differentiation in the peach occurs in the latter part of July,. 

Plum and Cherry. The time of differentiation seems ta 
vary somewhat with the different species of plums. Thus, 
varieties of the Americana species differentiate about the first 
week in July, those of the Japanese plums about the second 
week in July, and one variety at least of the Hortulana 
species, the Whitaker, a wild goose plum, showed no sign of 
fruit-bud differentiation in Virginia until the first week in 
September. Cherry buds seem to differentiate about the first 
week in July. 

Quince. In Wisconsin, observations seemed to show that 
the beginning of flower parts could first be seen in the quince 
during late summer or early autumn. 

Summary and Conclusions Concerning Fruit-Bud Differen- 
tiation. It can be seen that most fruit buds are formed nor- 
mally quite early in the season. Thus it seems reasonable that 
any treatments such as fertilization, pruning, and soil culture, 
designed to influence tree growth and fruit-bud formation, 
would be more effective if given in the spring and early 
summer. 

It should also be kept in mind that the fruit buds are 
formed the year preceding that in which the crop is borne. 

TREE PHYSIOLOGY AND NUTRITION 

Fruit trees as well as other plants grow, thrive, and are pro- 
ductive when adequate amounts of water, mineral or soil foodsy 
and air foods are available, provided that other environmental 



218 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS 



conditions are satisfactory. The plants absorb from the soil, 
through the fine root hairs, the various mineral elements. 
These, of course, must be dissolved in the soil water before they 
can be absorbed, and are taken into the plants through the 
roots. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulfur, iron, 
and magnesium seem highly essential for most plants, but other 
elements, including silicon, chlorine, sodium, manganese and 
aluminum are also used. See also the reference to cases of 
boron deficiency at the close of the chapter on managing 
orchard soils and fertilizing the trees, page 440. 

What Elements Are Most Often Lacking in the Soil. Al- 
though fruit trees do need and use for proper development 
all the essential elements, experiments have shown that most 
soils are supplied with sufficient available amounts of these 
minerals for satisfactory tree growth and fruitfulness. Suffi- 
cient nitrogen for best growth and fruiting, however, seems to 
be lacking in many soils, and in such cases much better growth 
and production result whenever it is added. 

How Trees Live and Function. In the leaves, and to a 
small extent in other green tissue, various elaborated or di- 
gested foods are formed. This process occurs in the presence 
of sunlight in the green parts or chloroplasts of the leaves. 
Carbon dioxide of the air enters through small breathing pores 
or stomata, and is combined with water to make up certain 
elaborated foods called carbohydrates (starches, sugars, etc.)* 

Since food and water are also combined and digested in the 
stomach of a person, the leaves might be called the stomach 
of the plant. With these facts in mind the great value to the 
plant of having a large, green, and healthy leaf surface can 
readily be seen. 

The soil foods may be considered as raw foods. After 
being taken into the plant and combined with the carbohy- 
drates, or other elaborated materials formed from them, they 
help to make up certain other foods. Of these foods, the carbo- 
hydrates and proteins are very important. The carbohydrates, 
proteins, and other materials derived from them are formed 



TREE PHYSIOLOGY 



219 



into new tissues and are also used in strengthening other tis- 
sues. Thus, in the apple, these materials are used in: (a) 
making new terminal growth over the tree; (6) increasing the 
diameter of the main limbs, trunks, and roots; (c) the pro- 
duction of new root growth; (d) the formation of new fruit 
spurs; (e) keeping the old spurs healthy; (/) the formation 
of fruit buds for fruit production; and (g) developing the 
individual fruits. 

Carbohydrates Are Essential for Fruit-Bud Formation. 
The accumulation of carbohydrates in the tissues is generally 
small during rapid growth, since the carbohydrates are largely 
used in building and developing new tissues, if the supply of 
moisture and nitrates is abundant. When rapid growth ceases, 
carbohydrates accumulate and at this time, or shortly there- 
after fruit buds begin to differentiate. 

Ringing and Notching. Additional evidences showing the 
favorable effects of carbohydrate accumulation on fruit-bud 
formation is found in ringing and notching. When vigorous 
young trees are ringed (a narrow ring of bark removed from 
the trunk without injury to the cambium layer) in May or 
early in June, such trees usually form a large number of 
fruit buds for the next year's crop, owing to the accumulation 
of carbohydrates above the ring. In ringing, a section of the 
tissue (phloem) through which the carbohydrates are trans- 
located to the lower parts of the tree and roots is removed, 
and as a result the concentration of carbohydrates is greater 
in the tops of the trees. ^ 

Where whole trees are ringed by removing a strip of bark 
around the trunk, a dwarfing of the trees often results. The 
roots are cut off from their full supply of carbohydrates and 
accordingly are checked in growth. This, together with the 
dwarfing caused by the crop of fruit, makes the practice ques- 
tionable when several years are considered. 

It is probable that more satisfactory results would occur 
over a period of years if ringing were confined to one main 
limb on the tree each year. By this means some fruit would 



220 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS 



be produced at an earlier age, and the trees would not receive 
suc'h a general check in growth. 

On the same principle as ringing, if a notch is cut in the 
twig below a bud, carbohydrates accumulate above the bud, 
and a fruit bud generally forms. A notch cut above a bud, 
thus decreasing carbohydrate accumulation and increasing 
the supply of nitrogen in the bud, will force out a shoot from 
that bud. 

Removal of Leaves Decreases the Carbohydrate Supply 
aiid Reduces Growth. In case of such removal fruit-bud 
foi'mation is also decreased, or, if differentiation has already 
occurred before the defoliation, the development of the buds is 
delayed, and they are often weakened. The removal of leaves 
from a spur or from a lateral bud usually prevents the forma- 
tion of fruit buds at these places. Thus each bud or spur is 
more or less dependent for its carboh3^drates upon its own 
leaves. No doubt there is some translocation of food ma- 
terials, however, from one region to another in a shoot or 
branch. It is known, for instance, that apples will develop 
normally even though there are no leaves immediately adja- 
cent to them. 

By Addition of Nitrogen, Tree Growth and Fruit-Bud PrO'* 
duction Are Often Greatly Increased, In many orchards in 
which groT\i:h has been checked by the lack of nitrogen, even 
though an accumulation of carbohydrates has resulted, fruit- 
fulness has not prevailed. Under such conditions remarkable 
results are secured in growth and fruitfulness from the appli- 
cation of nitrogenous fertilizers. When nitrates become avail- 
able, the stored carbohydrates are utilized, new growth results 
throughout the tree, the foliage becomes larger and greener, 
and large numbers of fruit buds are usually formed. 

Great Importance of Water in Tree Growth and Successful 
Fruit Groiving Cannot Be Overemphasized. The absolute de- 
pendence of the tree^s welfare on water can readily be seen 
from the fact that all soil nutrients must first be dissolved in 
water before they can be taken into the plant. These soil 



TREE PHYSIOLOGY 



221 



nutrients, however, do not flow into the plant in a water 
stream, but their intake depends upon their solubility and 
their relative concentration within and without the plant. 
Whenever their concentration is higher in the soil solution, 
they diffuse into the plant. If it were not for water, these 
foods would not be transported up through the plant. Water, 
again, is necessary in the formation of the carbohydrates, 
proteins, fats, etc., and their translocation down from the 
leaves to all parts of the branches, fruit, trunk, and roots. 
Large amounts of water are likewise transpired daily. About 
500 pounds of water are transpired for each pound of dry mat- 
ter produced, and fruits contain from 85 to 90 percent water. 
Such troubles as cracking of fruit, water core, fruit pit, eork„ 
drought spot, and die-back are all exaggerated by improper 
water relations. Each vigorous, mature apple tree uses from 
15 to 20 tons of water per year when it is making a good 
growth and producing a good crop. 

On the other hand, it is possible to have too much soil mois- 
ture available for good tree growth and fruitfulness ; then trees^^ 
suffer from what is commonly known as 'Vet feet.^' Orchards" 
planted in ground that remains wet during most of the year^ 
especially if the water table is close to the surface, grow and 
fruit very poorly, and are easily injured by cold weather. 
Such soils are poorly aerated and do not warm up, bacterial 
action in the soil is practically prevented, and the roots of 
fruit trees either make very little growth or die. Of course 
orchards should not be planted under such conditions, but 
they are occasionally found. If the conditions are not too 
hopeless, thorough soil drainage will produce wonderful results. 

Relation of Amounts of Carbohydrates and Nitrogen, Not 
only are the amounts of carbohydrates and nitrogen important 
in influencing growth and fruitfulness, but the relative propor- 
tions of these in the plant seem to be very important. 

In general, plants may be grouped into four classes, de- 
pending upon their growth and fruitfulness, and the propgrtioDL 
of carbohydrates and nitrogen in their tissues. 



222 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS 



The four classes are as follows: 

Class L If the supply of moisture and nitrogen is abun- 
dant, but that of carbohydrates is restricted, growth will be 
weak, slender, and feeble, and there will be little or no pro- 
duction of flowers. Although this condition is not common in 
orchards, it might occur if trees were defoliated yearly by in- 
sects, diseases, or spray material. Trees pruned heavily in the 
summer would probably fall into this group also. 

Class II. If the supply of moisture and nitrogen is abun- 
dant, and there are sufficient carbohydrates to utilize this nitro- 
gen supply, a strong, vigorous wood and leaf growth results, 
but still very few fruit buds are formed. The carbohydrates 
are used in growth, leaving no surplus for fruit-bud formation. 
This condition is well illustrated by vigorous, rather heavily 
pruned young orchards, which continue to grow vigorously, on 
rich, moist, fertile, cultivated soils, but do not come into 
bearing. 

Bearing apple trees which have been too heavily pruned and 
headed back in the dormant season usually fall into this class 
for two or three years after the pruning. The carbohydrates 
stored in the limbs, spurs, etc., are cut away in the pruning, 
resulting in an unusually large supply of nitrogen and water 
for those buds which remain. The removal of so many buds 
also reduces greatly the amount of growth and leaves which 
normally would have been produced. Thus, less carbohy- 
drates would be made and stored. 

Class III. If the moisture and nitrogen supply is ample, 
and there is an excess of carbohydrates over and above the 
amounts utilized with the nitrogen, there is not only a good 
growth of tree, but also an abundant supply of fruit buds. 
This is the condition found in healthy, producing orchards. 

Class IV. If there is a deficiency of nitrogen and an abun- 
dance of carbohydrates, an extremely weak growth, yellowish 
foliage, with either few flowers produced or else a production 
of flowers too weak to set fruit results. This is the condition 
usually found in so-called '^starved^' or "devitalized orchards." 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 



223 



Old orchards growing under sod conditions, without fertiliza- 
tion, are often in this class. 

If we were to represent these conditions graphically, illus- 
trating the amounts and relations of carbohydrates and ni- 
trates by sizes of letters, the chart would look as follows: 

Class I. Poor growth. Small amount of fruit. 
C 

Class II. — Rank growth. Small amount of fruit. 

Class III. _ Fair growth. Good fruitine:. 
N 

Class IV. C Poor growth. Small amount of fruit. 

N 

It can thus be seen that both carbohydrates and nitrogen 
are very important for tree growth and fruit production. An 
accumulation of carbohydrates alone, if caused by a lack of 
nitrogen or some other limiting factor, would probably not 
cause either growth or fruit-bud formation. A supply of nitro- 
gen would then be necessary in order to have the carbohy- 
drates utilized. Likewise a large supply or accumulation of 
nitrogen would not cause growth and fruiting in the absence 
of an adequate supply of carbohydrates. Such common orchard 
operations as pruning, fertilization, and soil management 
should therefore be considered in relation to their effect on 
the carbohydrate and nitrogen supply of fruit trees, before 
deciding upon any definite practices. 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 

1. Inspect several different kinds of fruit trees in your community. 
Determine : 

(a) Where the fruit buds are formed. 

(b) Where the leaf buds are formed. 

(c) The average length of terminal growth. 

(d) Whether fruit spurs are present. 



224 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS 



2. Study a fruit spur. Determine: 

(a) Its age. 

(b) How many times it has borne. 

(c) The length of growth made each year. 

3. Examine an apple tree. Determine: 

(a) What percentage of the spurs have never borne any fruit. 
(6) What percentage of the spurs are bearing fruit this year. 

4. Examine different varieties of apple trees. Determine: 

(a) Whether fruit is being borne, {h) terminally on shoots, (c) lat- 
erally, or id) terminally on spurs. 

5. How old must a spur be before it will form fruit buds? 

6. Determine at what time of year terminal growth in length ceases. 
Determine the same for fruit spurs. 

7. Ring some five-year-old apple trees, and see if they blossom any 
sooner than trees which are not so treated. 

8. Put some nitrate of soda around an old, unproductive apple tree 
and determine its effect on: 

(a) Color of foliage. 

(6) Length of terminal growth. 

(c) Length of fruit spur growth. 

(d) Amount of fruit buds formed. 

9. Explain the results secured in Studies 7 and 8 from a carbohydrate 
and nitrogen relationship within the plant. 



CHAPTER V 



PRUNING 

A certain amount of pruning is desirable with all fruit trees. 

The amount of pruning required varies with the kinds of 
fruit, their age, fruiting habits, and other factors such as soil 
management and fertilization. 

Operations : 

1. Deciding when the pruning should be done. 

2. Determining how heavily the trees should be pruned. 

3. Selecting the pruning tools. 

4. Pruning the different tree fruits. 

5. Determining pruning costs. 

1. Deciding When the Pruning Should be Done. Experi- 
ments show that pruning may well be done at any time from 
leaf fall in the autumn until the buds start to grow in the 
spring. In some sections where the winters are unusually 
cold, if there is danger of winter injury to the fresh pruning 
wounds, it would be well, especially with peaches and other 
stone fruits, to wait until spring before doing the pruning. 
In general, if one had only a few trees to prune and plenty of 
help, the work might well be left until spring; otherwise 
pruning should start in the fall or winter. Wounds made just 
as growth is starting in the spring heal a little more quickly, 
but this would not be of enough importance to delay the 
pruning if there is much of it to do. Careful pruning ex- 
periments in this and other countries have shown, however, 
that, as a general rule, dormant pruning over a period of 
years has been more satisfactory, when measured by tree 
growth and fruit yields, than summer pruning. Young trees 
given approximately the same kind and amount of pruning 

225 



226 



PRUNING 



in the summer as that given to similar trees in the winter 
have generally produced less new growth and slightly smaller 
trunks and root systems and have not borne any earlier or 
larger crops. As a matter of fact, in most of the experiments 
recorded, the yields from the summer-pruned trees have been 
less. 

Certain types of summer pruning may occasionally be 
desirable. The pinching out of undesirable shoots just after 
growth starts in newly planted trees may be of advantage in 
forming a proper framework in young trees. Water sprouts 
or suckers in old trees may well be rubbed off in early spring. 
Young trees which appear to be quite dense usually ^'open 
up" well when their first crops are borne. It may be de- 
sirable to head back an occasional limb on a young tree during 
the summer simply to maintain a better-shaped tree. 

2. Determining How Heavily the Trees Should Be Pruned. 
Although the general principles underlying pruning hold for 
trees of all ages, old bearing trees generally require heavier 
pruning than young non-bearing trees. Accordingly, it is 
well to consider separately the pruning of yoimg and of old 
trees. 

Procedure: 

(a) Prune young non-bearing trees lightly. 
(6) Prune young bearing trees lightly, 
(c) Prune old bearing trees more heavily. 

(a) Prune Young Non-Bearing Trees Lightly. The best 
results are usually secured by pruning young trees lightly. 
Experiments in this and other countries have shown that with 
young trees pruning is a dwarfing process. Such trees pruned 
heavily each year have smaller trunks and smaller main 
branches, make less total top and root growth, have fewer 
fruit spurs, come into bearing later, and bear smaller crops, 
at least for the first few years, than trees pruned lightly. 
This is illustrated by Table 36 from Michigan Extension 
Bulletin 148. 



HOW HEAVILY TREES SHOULD BE PRUNED 227 



TABLE 36 



Effect of Severity of Pruning on Size and Yield of Apple Trees 
Growth measurements made at 9 years from planting. 
Yields are totals per tree for the 9-year period. 





Average Size of Trees 






±1 ULLi^ 

V^XX v> LI J 1 1 






Yield 


Variety and Pruning Treatment 


Tree 


Tree 


per Tree 




ference 


Spread 


Height 






'i.Ti.rh.p.a 




feet 


bushels 


Duchess (Oldenburg): 












14.2 


13.8 


16,3 


2.9 




13.7 


13.3 


17.0 


1.7 




12.2 


11.4 


15.5 


1.1 


Grimes: 














15 3 




4.4 




15.1 


14.8 


16.4 


4.9 




15.6 


16.3 


16.0 


3.1 


Baldwin: 












17 7 


17 6 


15 6 

XO . \J 


1.8 




17.6 


16.5 


16.2 


0.5 




16.7 


15.4 


14.6 


0.4 


Stayman: 












±\J . o 


20 Q 


17 4 

XI . t: 


3.7 




16.4 


19.7 


17.2 


2.8 




15.0 


18. 5 


lo.o 


1.8 


iNortneru opy. 












17.3 


14.9 


17.9 


0 




15.7 


12.4 


16.6 


0 




14.1 


11.4 


15.4 


0 


Average of all varieties: 












16.3 


16.5 


16.8 


2.6 




15.7 


15.3 


16.7 


2.0 




14.7 


14.6 


15.6 


1.3 



228 



PRUNING 



Pruning, by causing a decrease in leaf area, dwarfs the 
tree and reduces fruiting. When some of the branches of a 
tree are removed by ^^thinning out" and those remaining are 
'^headed back/' a large number of buds which might otherwise 
grow are removed. This means that the leaf area of the tree 
is reduced in proportion to the severity of the pruning. 

With the leaf area reduced, the amount of carbohydrates 
and other foods formed is greatly reduced also, and since these 
are the materials which cause top and root growth and fruit- 
bud formation, as explained in Chapter IV, it is apparent why 
heavy pruning would dwarf the trees and decrease fruit pro- 
duction. 

With the reduced root growth resulting from the pruning, 
less top growth would be produced each year in the heavily 
pruned trees, and thus the dwarfing, in comparison to the lighter 
pruned trees, would be more pronounced each year as the prun- 
ing continued, at least until the lightly pruned trees were 
bearing heavily. 

In spite of all this, pruning is an essential orchard prac- 
tice. The tree cannot be permitted to grow at will. A strong 
framework is necessary to carry future crops. Fundamental 
weaknesses are best corrected while the tree is small. The 
emphasis, therefore, should be on pruning as little as possible in 
keeping with known objectives and especially before the tree 
has begun to bear. 

(b) Prune Young Bearing Trees Lightly. More wood 
growth and fruit are produced, for the same reason as de- 
scribed in the preceding section, if young bearing trees are 
given light rather than heavy pruning. Although the tops 
of lightly primed trees may appear a little thick, while bear- 
ing the first few crops, nevertheless the trees usually develop 
faster and produce heavier crops than trees pruned more 
heavily. On young bearing trees the fruit usually is of good 
size and color, even though the trees are lightly pruned. 
The amount of pruning may well be increased after two or 
three commercial crops have been borne. 



HOW HEAVILY TREES SHOULD BE PRUNED 229 



(c) Prune Old Bearing Trees More Heavily, Old bearing 
trees somewhat low in vigor generally respond better to moder- 
ately heavy pruning than to light pruning. The tops of such 
trees gradually become filled with numerous branches which 
are thickly set with old and weak spurs. Relatively little 
new spur or terminal growth occurs, and the leaves are often 
small and yellowish in appearance. The buds on the spurs 
open into a whorl of leaves each year, but very little extension 
growth is made. The wood of such trees gradually becomes 
packed with carbohydrates in proportion to nitrates, and 
such trees approach the non-vegetative and unfruitful class 
described in Chapter IV. Either many of the fruit spurs 
cease forming fruit buds, or, if buds are formed, many of 
the blossoms fail to set. 

With such trees, moderately heavy pruning or much heavier 
applications of nitrogen fertilizers have a decidedly invigorat- 
ing effect. If larger amounts of fertilizers are not added, 
heavy pruning will be especially beneficial. The pruning 
should consist primarily of making numerous small cuts 
equally distributed over the entire tree, so that all parts will 
be invigorated. The lower limbs, especially, should- be well 
thinned out and in some trees it will pay to head back lightly 
an occasional slender, weak limb to an upward growing 
branch. An attempt should be made to keep these lower 
limbs growing and fruiting as well as those in the upper 
parts of the tree. The ends of the upper branches, where they 
are getting too high, should also be headed back to good 
laterals. This will tend to lower the tops and stimulate 
growth in the lower as well as upper branches. 

As a result of removing numerous small branches contain-^ 
ing large numbers of spurs and buds, the amount of carbohy-^ 
drates will be reduced and more water and nitrates will be 
made available for each of the buds left. Terminal growth 
becomes longer, and those spurs which remain, including many 
which have not borne for years, make a longer growth, have^ 
larger and greener leaves, and form fruit buds. 



230 



PRUNING 



Regular annual pruning should be practiced, in order to 
keep the trees open so that efficient spraying can be done, 
so that sunlight can reach all parts of the trees to assist in 
carbohydrate manufacture and the coloring of fruit, so that 
limb rub of fruit will be reduced, good growth assured in all 
parts of the tree, good size of fruit maintained, and so that 
the tops of the trees will not get too high. 

3. Selecting the Pruning Tools. The kinds of pruning 
tools used vary in the different sections of the country. The 
tools most commonly found are saws, knives, hand shears, 
long-handled shears, and pole pruners. 

Saws. In the West the swivel blade or meat saw type of 
saw. Fig. 77, C, D, E, is used to a great extent but it has never 
been universally adopted. In the East, many growers use a 
straight-bladed saw which is somewhat similar to a carpenter's 
saw but not so wide at the butt, with fewer points or teeth, 
Fig. 77, Gy H, J. A satisfactory saw for general pruning is 
one about 2 feet long, 1 inch wide at the tip, and 4 inches wide 
at the butt, containing 6 to 7 teeth per inch. It should have a 
handle large enough to accommodate the entire hand with 
gloves on. Such a saw can be used even in narrow crotches and 
will be satisfactory for both small and large limbs. If it is 
necessary to make many large cuts, as often happens when 
renovating an old orchard, it will pay to have a forester's 
type of saw, which is heavier and has fewer and larger teeth. 
Such a saw cuts through the large limbs more easily and 
saves the energy of the man who is doing the sawing. The 
crescent-shaped type of saw, which cuts when the saw is pulled 
(Fig. 77F), is especially satisfactory for branches of medium 
size or where there is little room in which to use a saw. A 
two-edged saw should never be used in the orchard, as it is 
bound to c-ause injury to the bark. Shorter and narrower 
saws with pointed ends may be of value in young trees. 
Frequently, however, one can do as good a job and a much 
quicker one with a pair of hand shears. 

Knives and Pruning Shears. For small trees, a heavy 



SELECTING THE PRUNING TOOLS 231 



pruning knife with a long hooked blade is often used. A 
good, strong pair of pruning shears is indispensable, however, 
in pruning young trees (Fig. 77 A), Most of the pruning with 
all fruits can be done for several years with such shears. 
Do not buy cheap shears, which are easily strained and 




ABC D E F Gl H I 



Fig. 77. Pruning tools used in the orchard. (A) Hand shears; (B) long- 
handled shears or "two-foots"; (C, D, and E) different patterns of swivel- 
bladed saws, popular in some regions but unpopular in others; {F) small 
type of pruning saw liked by many growers — the teeth slant toward the 
handle and cut when the saw is pulled; (G) straight-bladed saw, narrow 
at the point and not very wide at the handle — well liked by many 
growers; {H) ordinary carpenter's saw, not especially desirable; (7) car- 
penter's type of saw but made with larger, longer, and heavier teeth, 
especially valuable because of ease with which large limbs can be re- 
moved. A forester's saw, not shown in the illustration, is desirable, if 
many large branches are to be removed. 

dulled; select those of good weight, containing the best steel 
blades. 

Long-Handled Shears, Long-handled shears, commonly 
called '^two foots^' because the handles are about 2 feet in 
length, are of great value especially in peach and plum 
orchards. Much of the pruning can be done with such shears 
in all bearing orchards. Generally speaking the single-acting 



232 



PRUNING 



shears with wooden handles are not so satisfactory or power- 
ful as the double-acting shears (Fig. 775). There are, how- 
ever, some very powerful, single-acting shears with steel han- 
dles and wood hand-grips that give excellent service. Many 
large limbs can be removed without the need of a saw and 
the work can be done as well and more quickly. The blade 
should be kept sharp and riveted down to make a clean, 
smooth cut. 

Pole Pruners. Pole Pruners have only a limited use in 
orchard pruning. For ordinary cuts, which can easily be 
made with any of the tools already mentioned, pole pruners 
should never be used. They are awkvv^ard to handle, and it is 
diflScult to make a close, smooth cut with them. Only when 
it seems desirable on young bearing trees to head back the 
centers of certain of the main limbs which cannot be reached 
from the ground are pole pruners of much value to the 
orchardist. In such cases they may be the most economical 
pruning tool that can be used. They should combine light 
weight and mechanical strength. Unless used carefully, the 
cutting blade becomes strained, or broken, causing much 
annoyance and loss of time. 

4. Pruning the Different Tree Fruits. Since the amount 
and kind of pruning vary somewhat with the different tree 
fruits, it is necessary to consider the pruning of each kind 
separately. 

The Apple 

(a) The Tops of Young Trees Should Be Pruned at 
Planting Time. When nursery trees are dug, many of the roots 
are broken or cut off and left in the ground. Because of this 
greatly decreased root system, it will usually pay to prune 
the trees moderately after they are set. This will reduce the 
early leaf area in the spring and make it more nearly possible 
for the greatly diminished root system to supply suflScient 
water and mineral nutrients for satisfactory growth. 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 



233 



If one-year-old whips are planted, head 
them back to the height desired. Under most 
conditions 24 to 36 inches is a satisfactory 
height, but if the trees are to be pruned by 
the budding or pinching-out method as de- 
scribed under peach pruning, the whips 
should be left about 50 inches high. On well- 
branched two-year-old trees, all branches 
which are not desirable for framework 
branches should be removed and the others 
should be cut back, the amount depending 
to some extent upon the growth that they 
have made. Such branches should be left 
at least 16 to 18 inches long if possible, so 
as to allow plenty of room for secondary 
branches to grow and not be too close to 
the trunk. A higher percentage of the trees 
which are headed back usually live the first 
year, especially if it happens to be a dry 
season, because the roots have an oppor- 
tunity to make some growth before much 
leaf area is expanded. Unless conditions 
are very satisfactory for rapid root growth 
and for low transpiration, limbs which are 
not headed back usually leaf out but make 
very little extension growth. 

The principle of dwarfing certain limbs 
by heavier cutting is often employed in train- 
ing young trees. If two branches of prac- 
tically equal size are so arranged as to form 
a bad crotch, which eventually might split 
if both were allowed to grow equally, one 
limb, by heavy pruning, can be dwarfed and 
made a side branch of the other (Fig. 79) . In 
this way a much stronger framework can be 
if it is desired merely to suppress a branch 




Fig. 78. This apple 
tree has been headed 
high enough so that 
well-spaced scaffold 
limbs can be se- 
lected by the debud- 
ding method soon 
after growth starts. 

built. Likewise, 
for a few years 



234 



PRUNING 



before removing it, this can be done by pruning it back 
more severely. A limb on a young tree can also be dwarfed 




(Cornell Exp. Station) 



Fig. 79. Unequal cutting corrects a weak crotch. 
At the left is a crotch which had two branches 
of equal size and length. One branch has been 
cut heavily in order to dwarf it in relation to 
the other. At the right, the results of pruning 
one branch heavily can be seen. One branch 
was headed back heavily three years ago as 
indicated by the arrow. Note that it has now 
become a side branch of the other and that 
there is little danger from splitting with a 
load of fruit. 

or checked in comparison to others by simply thining out 
some of its lateral branches, thus reducing the leaf area 
rather severely. 

(6) A Low-Headed Tree Is Advisable, The region on 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRXHTS 235 



the trunk of the tree where most of the main framework 
branches start is spoken of as the ^^head'' of the tree. It is 
well to remember that the ^^head^' of a tree does not grow 
higher from the ground as the tree gets older. In fact, as 
the main limbs increase in diameter, the lower surfaces of the 
limbs become somewhat closer to the ground — ^the center of 
the branch remains at the original distance and the upper 
part of the branch is somewhat farther away. Thus limbs 
5 feet from the ground on old trees were at the same height, 
if measured from the center of the branches, when the trees 
were young. 

A few years ago trees were often headed high — 5 or 6 feet 
from the ground. It was felt that the ground under such 
trees could be cultivated more thoroughly and more easily. 
In recent years, however, trees are being headed much lower — 
20 to 36 inches. Such trees attain large size earlier than high- 
headed trees which must be pruned heavily during the first 
two or three years in order to produce a high head. All lower 
limbs in high-headed trees have to be removed from the 
central stem until a height of 5 or 6 feet is reached, and this 
is a dwarfing process. It is evident also that lower-headed trees 
can be pruned and sprayed, and the fruit thinned and picked, 
much more easily and cheaply. Cultivating tools with ex- 
tension sides now permit the orchardist to work the ground 
satisfactorily and conveniently under the branches. Low- 
headed trees are subjected to less whipping about and bending 
by the winds. 

(c) The ^'Modified Leader^^ Form of Tree Is Recommended. 
Apple trees are usually trained to some general form or shape, 
such as open head or vase form, center leader, or modified 
center leader. The form to which a tree is trained is not so 
important, however, as the question of how much and when to 
prune. Trees pruned properly by any of the methods will 
grow and fruit well. 

In the open-head form, the central shoot or leader is re- 
moved after one yearns growth, if one-year-old trees are used, 



236 



PRUNING 



or at planting time with two-year trees, and three to five 
limbs, spaced as far apart as possible on the trunk, are left 
to form the head of the tree (Fig. 80a). Advocates of this- 
method claim that it is superior because it allows more sun- 
light to enter the tree and because the tree does not become so- 
tall as trees trained by the center-leader method. As a matter 
of fact, the tops and centers of open-headed trees will become 
quite thick if considerable pruning is not done. The main 




Fig. 80. (a) Four-year-old Williams apple tree pruned by the open- 
head system. There has been practically no heading back, (b) A tree 
of the same variety and age in the same orchard but pruned by the- 
two-story center leader system. No heading back has been practiced in 
this tree either. This tree will probably make a stronger one than the 

tree shown in (a). 

disadvantage of this method, however, is the fact that all the 
main framework limbs, which are usually equal in size, com* 
monly grow out very close to one another on the trunk.. 
Weak crotches, which tend to split when heavy crops are borne,, 
often result. 

When the center-leader form of tree is used, the center stem 
is not removed. Each year additional side branches are- 
trained from the center stem, which is always pruned less 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 



237 



ft 

/ 




(Mich. State College) 



Fig. 81. An apple tree that has grown two years according to the modi- 
fied leader system, before and after pruning. Note that, in addition to 
removal of some shoots, the upper right fork has been cut back to make 
the left fork dominant and thus avoid a bad crotch. 



238 



PRUXIXG 



severely than the other branches (Fig. 806). These branches, 
being better spaced and coming out at a wider angle than 
those of the open-headed tree, are less liable to split out when 
crops are borne. Such trees, however, tend to become quite 
thick and to continue upward growth. Unless special atten- 
tion is given to these matters, the trees become very high and 

the fruit poor in color. 

The modified-leader 
form affords the advantages 
of the other two systems, 
with few if any of their dis- 
advantages. In this system, 
the center or top limb is 
left for 3 or 4 years before 
it is headed to an outward 
growing branch. Thus a 
leader 4 or 5 feet in length 
is the result. Plenty of 
well-spaced limbs coming 
out at wide angles from the 
trunk can be selected to 
form the main framework 
of the tree (Fig. 81). This 
results generally in a much 
stronger tree than the open- 
headed type (Fig. 82). 

Some growers who train 
their trees according to 
the modified-leader sys- 
tem remove all undesir- 
able shoots from one-year-old trees a short time after 
growth starts. This method is explained later under peach 
pruning. 

It should always be remembered that each variety of 
apples has a characteristic growth, and that as a result, certain 
varieties may be more easily trained to a certain form than 




{Mich. State College) 

Fig. 82. There is an excellent distri- 
bution of branches in this six-year-old 
Delicious tree. 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 239 



others. In fact it will not be wise to attempt to make all 
varieties conform to one ideal in shape. One can work to- 
ward the ideal in a general way with all varieties, but to be 
exacting might cause so much pruning as to be uneconomical. 

Very often corrective pruning can improve the shape of 
the tree (Fig. 81). 

(d) In Training and Pruning Young Trees, Do as Little 
Cutting as Possible Consistent with Building a Strong, WelU 
Formed Tree. It is apparent from the preceding paragraphs 
that any pruning given the young tree will cause dwarfing 




Tig. 83. (a) Lightly pruned five-year-old Stayman Winesap orchard in 
West Virginia bearing a crop of fruit. (6) A six-year-old Mcintosh tree 
which has been pruned heavily each year since planting. Such pruning 
dwarfs the tree, reduces fruit spur formation, and seriously delays 

bearing. 



and will delay and decrease production (Fig. 83) . How- 
ever, a certain amount of pruning is necessary in order to 
insure a strong and well-formed tree, even if some dwarfing 
does occur. Thus in forming the main head of the tree, 
branches which will always be undesirable should be removed 
at once. Limbs coming out below the head should be re- 
moved. Two limbs should not be allowed to parallel each other 
closely, since each will partly shade the other. The least 
desirable should be removed, at least before too much crowd- 



240 



PRUNING 



ing occurs. The main framework branches should be well 
spaced (from 8 to 10 inches or more apart) about the trunk, 
and those forming wide angles with the trunk should be 
selected (Fig. 84). 

Five to seven branches may be left to form the head of the 
tree if the modified-center-leader system is used. The frame- 
work branches may be spaced over a distance of 4 to 5 feet. 




(Mich. State College) 

Fig. 84. The result of permitting three branches of equal size to arise 

from a single point. 



Often only two or three of these and the center leader are 
selected after the first yearns growth. The remainder are 
secured in the course of the next two or three years. As pre- 
viously indicated, the leader can be directed out into a side 
branch at any time by cutting back to an outward-growing 
branch. 

The main framework branches should be headed back 
during the first two or three years, if they are making long 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 241 

growths. No definite amounts of heading back, such as 10 
per cent or 20 per cent, can be recommended. If the branches 
are making a length growth of more than 2 feet, it will prob- 
ably pay to head back to this length. This will insure the 
formation of new secondary branches low enough to prevent 
the tree from becoming too 'Villowy^' or '^leggy.'' If the 
limbs are headed too severely, serious crowding of the second- 
ary branches will result. 

Secondary branches which are selected for continuing the 
framework of the tree each year should not be shortened 
back equally, if heading back is practiced. When such 
branches originate close together, bad crotches will occur as 
previously described if one is not dwarfed by reducing the 
leaf area through heavier cutting. 

As a w^hole, thinning out lightly should be practiced in 
preference to heading back, unless the shoots are unusually 
vigorous. It should be remembered, however, that the more 
severely a tree is cut back, the longer will be the growths 
of the resulting shoots, which may mean heavier pruning 
again the next year. 

It is not advisable to thin out non-bearing or young trees 
severely. Although the trees may look better to some people 
if all growths on the insides of the main limbs are removed, 
such pruning will remove large number of leaves which, 
unless under badly shaded conditions, would contribute greatly 
to the growth and fruiting of the tree. It should be remembered 
that each branch with its leaves adds to the tree's food prob- 
ably much more than it uses. As a result, the longer such 
branches can be left, suppressing them with pruning if neces- 
sary, before finally removing them, the sooner the tree will 
attain large size and profitable bearing (Fig. 85). 

Pruning Young and Old Bearing Apple Trees. This sub- 
ject has already been treated on pages 226 and 229. 

Rejuvenation Pruning of Apple Trees. It will often pay 
to attempt to rejuvenate old orchards even though they may 
have been neglected for several years, if the orchard is located 



242 



PRUNING 



on good soil with good air and soil drainage, with few missing 
trees, with desirable varieties, and if the trees are not mere 
skeletons from heartwood decay. 

In addition to spraying, fertilization, and proper soil 




{Mich. State College) 

Fig. 85. The type of young bearing apple tree for which the grower 

should strive. 



management, pruning is an important factor in the rejuvena- 
tion of such orchards. As a rule, the trees are quite tall, with 
very little fruiting wood except at the ends of long, polelike 
branches. Many dead limbs and stubs are in evidence. If the 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 243 

trees are too close together, part of them, usually alternate 
trees, should be removed. One of the first things to do in 
pruning is to remove all dead limbs. Cut them off close to the 
limbs from which they are growing, or close to the trunk if 
they are attached directly to it. If the main scaffold limbs 
are too numerous remove some of them. The tops of the trees 
will usually need lowering, if vigorous fruiting wood is to be 
produced where it can be pruned and the crops thinned, 
sprayed, and picked efficiently. In such cases head back to 
side branches. It is not necessary or desirable to head back 
more than 5 to 10 feet the first season. 

All branches left should be thoroughly thinned out by 
making many small cuts to reduce competition and to admit 
sunlight to all parts. 

As a result of such severe pruning, water sprouts or 
"suckers" will probably grow in considerable numbers. Where 
limbs are needed, the most vigorous of these sprouts can be 
saved, and shortened back the following year. It is surprising 
how quickly they will develop, complete the symmetry of the 
tree, and bear fruit. 

In removing large limbs, it is advisable first to saw up 
from the under side of such limbs. They can then be sawed 
through from above so that splitting and tearing of the wood 
and bark will not result when the limbs fall. 

With fertilization, pruning, spraying, and proper soil man- 
agement, such orchards can often be completely reclaimed. 
Future pruning should be as indicated for bearing trees. 

Protecting Pruning Wounds. It seems unnecessary to 
paint wounds smaller than 2 inches in diameter, as they heal 
quickly. 

When large limbs are removed, the wound should be pro- 
tected from disease organisms, sun, wind, and rain by cover- 
ing with some suitable material. Coal-tar preparations, as- 
phaltum mixtures, grafting wax, zinc paint, water glass, white 
lead, and various other materials are used. All these mate- 
rials, except grafting wax and possibly the water glass (sodium 



244 



PRUNING 



silicate), injure the cambium to some extent. As a result, 
delay painting the wounds for a year until the cambium is 
protected by bark, unless wood-decaying organisms are serious. 
White lead is a satisfactory covering, but many others are 
being used successfully. 

The Pear 

The pear is so similar in fruiting habit to the apple that 
many of the recommendations given in reference to pruning 
the apple can be adopted. 

(a) The Pear Is Trained Either by the Pyramidal^ Open, 
Modified'Leader, or Natural Form. In many sections the 
pyramidal or center-leader form of tree is used. The open- 
headed or vase form seems to have preference in the large 
pear-growing regions of the West, since it is easier to control 
pear blight in trees pruned by this method. Compared to 
the pyramidal form the trees pruned to the open-headed form 
have fewer main branches, are not quite so thick as a result, 
and consequently blight can be seen and controlled more 
easil}^ It is also easier to keep blight from becoming estab- 
lished in the main limbs and trunk when the center leader 
is removed. In the more open trees any blighted spurs on 
the lower limbs can be seen and removed immediately, and 
thus infection at these places can be checked. 

The modified-leader type of tree combines many of the 
advantages of the other two systems and may well be used 
in many sections. Trees allowed to assume a natural form, 
no definite effort being made to force them into any one 
system, often are very satisfactory. 

(t>) Young, Non-Bearing Trees Shoidd Be Pruned Lightly. 
T^Tiat has been said relative to pruning young apple trees 
applies, for the most part, to the pruning of young pear trees. 

If the main branches make too long a growth (more than 
30 to 36 inches) during the season, they should be shortened 
back, since pear branches are inclined to break off (generally 
above the crotch) more than apples. Some growers prune the 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 



245 



young trees quite heavily each year in an effort to prevent this 
breaking of limbs, but such trees become dwarfed and are late 
in coming into bearing. Many growers prune very little, how- 
ever, in order to get a tree large enough to bear commercial 
crops as soon as possible. In such cases several crops might 
be secured before a really serious blight year is encountered. 

Figure 86 shows a three-year-old pear tree before and after 
pruning. 

With pear varieties that are very upright growers, it will 
pay to cut back to outside buds or branches when heading is 
practiced, in order to encourage a more spreading shape. 

(c) Bearing Trees Respond Well to a Heavier Type of 
Pruning, The ^^set'^ of fruit, especially with some varieties 
as Bartlett and Anjou, is often increased considerably by prac- 
ticing heavier pruning after the trees have come into com- 
mercial bearing. Size of fruit, likewise, is often benefited. 
It is well to remove the fruit spurs on the lower parts of the 
limbs near the trunk, if they have not previously been re- 
moved, in order to prevent the entrance of pear blight at these 
points. A certain amount of thinning out and some heading 
back to outward growing laterals will usually be beneficial. 

With old and high pear trees making a very short growth, 
and with numerous weak fruit spurs, a thorough thinning out 
of many of the small branches and a moderate heading back of 
the main limbs are desirable. The spurs on such old trees 
normally make only a weak grow^th each year, blossom ir- 
regularly, and often s<et , very little fruit. A thorough pruning, 
by eliminating many of the spurs and buds while the roots 
remain the same, results in more water and nutrients being 
available to the remaining buds. As a result, terminal growth 
is greater, new spurs are formed, the old spurs make a better 
growth, the leaves about each spur become larger and greener, 
fruit buds are formed, and more fruit is produced. No doubt 
better cultural and fertilizer practices will also be beneficial, 
but with these old trees great benefits are derived from a 
thorough pruning. 



246 



PRUNING 




{Mich, State College) 



Fig. 86. A three-year-old pear tree before and after pruning. A lateral 
threatening the supremacy of the leader has been checked, and an 
attempt has been made to spread the tree by cutting to outward- 
growing laterals. 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 



247 



The Peach 

The fruit of the peach is borne on the previous season's 
growth, or one-year wood. Usually this bearing wood consists 
of terminal and lateral shoots which are produced over the 
outer surface of the tree, but occasionally these shoots or 
twigs are quite short, especially if the trees lack vigor. Such 
growths are often called spurs, although they are not the 
same as the spurs of the apple and pear. 

The sooner a tree of large proportions can be grown, the 
sooner it will come into profitable bearing. It can thus be 
seen that the less pruning that can be done consistent with 
forming a strong well-shaped tree, the better. 

(a) At Transplanting Time the Young Trees Should Be 
Headed Back. Well-matured trees of medium to large size 
are desirable for planting. The usual practice in most sec- 
tions is to cut back these "whips," leaving them from 18 to 22 
inches high. This allows for a low-headed tree and still leaves 
room for working the soil and combating borers. If no buds 
or limbs are present below this height, then the trees should 
be headed higher. If the buds below this region have grown 
out into weak branches in the nursery, these branches should 
be cut back to stubs of one bud. New limbs will grow either 
from dormant buds at the base of these stubs or from the 
buds left on the stubs. If the tree as it comes from the 
nursery has numerous strong, well-matured, and well-spaced 
branches — ^which is not usual — these can be thinned out, three 
or four being left and shortened back moderately. 

A promising method of pruning after transplanting is in- 
dicated later in this section. 

(6) After the First Season's Growth the Main Framework 
Branches Should Be Selected, During the first season's 
growth, several buds will grow out into branches. The follow- 
ing spring three or four of these branches spaced as far apart as 
possible and spirally about the trunk should be selected to 
form the head of the tree. The remaining branches should 



248 



PRUNING 



be removed. Three limbs are sufficient to make an excellent 
tree, if nothing happens to one of them. If, however, one 
of these limbs is broken out during cultivation by careless 
labor, as often happens in some of the large orchards, the 
size of the tree becomes seriously decreased for a year or two 
until new branches can fill in the space. In many trees at 
least four, or possibly five, scaffold limbs are desirable. 




{Md. Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 87. (a) Two-year-old peach tree after being pruned lightly. Main 
limbs were headed to outward-growing branches, but laterals were not 
clipped back. Shoots in center of tree were not removed. This tree will 
reach large size quickly and bear early and large crops, (b) Two-year-old 
peach tree in same orchard as (a). This tree was pruned heavily. Such 
pruning dwarfs the tree and delays bearing. 

These scaffold limbs should usually be headed back, the 
amount depending upon the growth that they have made. 
If the limbs selected are not more than 2 feet in length, it 
will not be desirable to head them at all. If the scaffold limbs 
are 3 feet in length, it will probably pay to head back 6 or 8 
inches to the first group of laterals, which usually occur on 
such limbs. This will cause the formation of the secondary 
scaffold branches far enough out from the trunk to secure 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 249 



a large tree quickly without making it too '^leggy^' or '^wil- 
lowy/^ (In regions where tip injury from the Oriental peach 
moth is severe during the middle of the growing season, no 
heading back will be necessary.) 

(c) After the Second Yearns Growth Select Three or Four 
Strong Laterals from Each of the Main Limbs Left the Year 
Before to Continue the Fraw^ework of the Tree, The remain- 
ing shoots should be thinned out moderately, and those left 
should be headed back more severely than these framework 
branches. This unequal cutting, owing to the resultant de- 
creased leaf area, will dwarf such branches in comparison to 
those left to form the main framework. It is neither neces- 
sary nor wise to clip back all the small laterals on these main 
branches, but they should be moderately thinned out (Fig. 87) . 

{d) Continue Building the Framework Following the Third 
Yearns Growth. About three branches should again be se- 
lected on each of the main branches left the year before to 
continue the framework of the tree. These should be headed 
back lightly to outward-growing branches and thinned out 
moderately. The shoots in the center of the tree should not 
be removed at this age, because a large percentage of the first 
crop is borne on these shoots. 

This method of light pruning, together with early and 
thorough cultivation, and the addition of larger amounts of 
available nitrogen fertilizers where needed, should produce a 
tree capable of bearing a good commercial crop during the 
fourth year. 

{e) A Promising Method of Training and Pruning Finding 
Favor in Some Sections Is Illustrated in Fig, 88. This has 
given a tree of good size, with branches better spaced than 
in trees headed according to the usual practice. 

(/) Bearing Trees Respond Better to a Somewhat Heavier 
Type of Pruning Than That Practiced with Young Trees, 
Even with these older trees pruning may easily be too severe 
for the largest and best fruit production. Experiments and 
observations show that it is not a wise practice to shear off 





(M. Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 88. Peach trees pruned according to new system, fa) At planting time the 
tree was cut off at about 40 in. and side branches were cut to stubs. fbrAf^er two 
weeks of growth, (c) Four well-spaced shoots were selected, (d) After one year's 
growth, note strong well-spaced branches, requiring little pruning (I) After ?wo 
years growth, (fj After three years. Such a tree requires little piUing after the 

first year. 



I 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 251 



uniformly the tops of bearing trees each year. In some sec- 
tions every shoot is headed back heavily with very little 
thinning out, and the tops of the trees resemble a well-clipped 
privet hedge. As a result of this practice, not only are tree 
size and total yield reduced but also the fruit produced is 
generally of poor color. •> 
The shoots on heavily pruned trees also grow later in the 
season and on account of poorer maturity are more subject to 
winter injury in regions of low temperature. 



Fig. 89. Four-year-old peach tree before (h) and after (a) receiving a 
light pruning. This tree has always been pruned lightly. Note that a 
light thinning out and a light heading back of the main branches has been 
given. This tree has a much larger bearing surface and is capable of 
producing a much larger crop than a tree of the same age heavily pruned. 

The branches of bearing trees should be headed back 
moderately to outward-growing branches (Fig. 89). The cen- 
ters of the trees should be kept reasonably open in order that 
the fruit will color well and in order to keep up the growth 
of new shoots on the main branches (Fig. 90) . 

After four or five heavy crops have been produced, it is 
well to head back more severely than usual for one year and 
especially to cut out the higher limbs, which are growing to- 
ward the centers of the trees. The tops of the main framework 
branches may be headed back into two-year wood, leaving the 




252 



PRUNING 



side branches and laterals to bear the crop. This may reduce 
the crop somewhat for the one year, but will cause new 
growth to be forced out lower down on the trees, especially 
on the inside of the main limbs. Thus new limbs can gradually 
be developed and the tree lowered without the loss of a crop. 
After moderate pruning again for four or five years, the trees 
may again be rebuilt gradually by this method. 




Fig. 90. The branches of lightly primed peach trees bend down or ''open 
up" with their crop of fruit. SunHght reaches all parts of the tree, and 
the fruit is usually well colored. Practically all the fruit can be picked 

from the ground. 



(g) When Peach Trees Are Pruned Lightly Each Year, 
Other Orchard Operations Must Be Modified, Lightly pruned 
trees of course become much wider, and require more space 
in the orchard, than heavily pruned trees. As a result many 
growers are now planting their trees 22 by 22 feet or 24 by 
24 feet instead of the old distance of 18 by 18 feet. With 
the advent of paradichlorobenzene for borers and the general 
benefit secured from nitrogen applications, together with 
pruning rejuvenation practices, many growers are now plant- 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 



253 



ing peaches in solid blocks with the idea of a comparatively 
long-time investment. Although the number of trees per acre 
is less because of the greater planting distances, the total 
3deld per acre, as a result of the larger trees, is higher and 
the color of fruit is usually much improved. The initial in- 
vestment is less for trees, and pruning costs are likewise 
decreased. 

It is reasonable to suppose that, if enough more wood and 
buds are left on a tree at least to double its yield, more mois- 
ture and fertilizers will be needed. Thus the grower who has 
been pruning severely, fertilizing little, cultivating moderately 
well, and securing an average yield of 1% bushels per tree 
will find himself in trouble if he decides to prune lightly and 
does not adjust his other practices in proportion. If nitrates 
have paid under the heavy pruning system, larger quantities 
will be required if lighter pruning is practiced, the fruit should 
be thinned more, early and thorough cultivation should be 
given, and those cover crops which will make the most organic 
matter under the local conditions should be used. In light 
soils, especially, large amounts of organic matter should be 
turned under, not only from a general fertility standpoint 
but also as an aid in increasing the water-holding capacity of 
the soil. 

Note that in all recommendations given it has been pointed 
out that bearing trees should be thinned out moderately, and 
that the limbs which are to continue the framework of the 
tree should receive a light to moderate heading back. 

{h) Pruning Is Very Important in Restoring Old Orchards 
to Fruitfulness. Many old peach orchards which have gradu- 
ally become unproductive, with long, bare limbs extending 
15 to 20 feet high, can be rejuvenated and made productive 
by proper methods of spraying, pruning, fertilization, borer 
control, and soil management. 

Many methods of rebuilding such trees have been advo- 
cated. Under most conditions it is best to prune the whole tree 
moderately the first year (Fig. 91). Trees headed back into 



254 



PRUNING 



three- or four-year wood, leaving the main branches 6 to 8 
feet long, with stubs of the lateral branches attached, gen- 
erally produce shoots of moderate vigor, which form sufficient 
fruit buds for a fair crop the next year. Although the trees 
are lowered to some extent, their bearing areas (height and 
width) are not reduced so severely as in the dehorned trees. 
After one yearns growth the bearing surface should nearly equal 
that of normal, healthy, bearing trees. Owing to the absence 




Fig. 91. Fourteen-year-old peach tree pruned 
moderately heavy. Note that all main leadera 
have been headed back to outward-growing 
branches but that the remaining shoots have 
not been clipped back. Such a type of pruning 
on old trees results in a good supply of new 
bearing wood each year. 

of dense growth, the fruit is also of normal color on such trees. 

Experiments at the Maryland Experiment Station have 
shown that dehorned trees yielded 1% pecks per tree after the 
first year's growth following the treatment, 1% pecks the sec- 
ond year, 9% pecks the third year, and 4 pecks the fourth year 
following the pruning. Moderately pruned trees in the same 
orchard during the same years yielded 4 pecks per tree after 
the first year's growth, 8 pecks the second year, 18 pecks the 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 255 



third year, and 14 pecks the fourth year. Thus the dehorned 
trees averaged a little less than 1 bushel per tree per year for 
the four years following the pruning, whereas the moderately 
heavily pruned trees averaged 2% bushels per tree per year 
during the same period. 

(i) Proper Pruning Is Especially Important after the 
Loss of a Fruit Crop from Frosts or Freezes, When frosts have 
destroyed the blossoms or the fruit buds have been killed on 
young trees four to six years old by low winter temperatures, 
many growers prune such trees very heavily. The theory is 
that since the crop is lost the tree can be materially lowered 
and a new top produced. It seems unwise, however, to prune 
such trees back into three- or four-year-old wood after such 
catastrophes. Since the crop has been lost, most trees, even 
without nitrogen applications, will make an excellent growth, 
unless severe wood killing has resulted. Cutting back into 
three- or four-year-old wood will simply decrease the size 
of the tree for the next yearns crop, and may cause such a 
rank, dense growth that comparatively few fruit buds will be 
formed. Sometimes it takes from two to three years for such 
trees to regain their original size so that good yields per tree 
may be secured. Usually a light thinning and heading back is 
all that is needed. 

When the wood of two- or three-year-old trees is badly 
winter-killed to the pith, it will probably pay to prune back 
the main branches to stubs in order to rebuild a main frame- 
work of healthy, sound branches so that future breakage will 
be avoided. 

Older bearing trees should be pruned more heavily than 
young bearing trees after frost or winter injury. An op- 
portunity is afforded for lowering to some extent the height of 
such trees and rebuilding with new wood. However, even 
with these trees it is easy to do too much pruning. It seems 
better even with trees frozen severely to prune moderately. 



256 



PRUNING 



The Cherry 

Sweet and sour cherries normally make a somewhat dif- 
ferent type of growth and hence require different pruning 
treatments. 

(a) Prune Young Sweet Cherry Trees Just Enough to Form 
a Desirable Framework. Although sweet cherries are trained 
by several different systems, the open-head or modified- 
leader type of tree seems to be most satisfactory under most 
conditions. Many varieties of sweet cherries tend to produce 
upright branches and thus tall trees if the center leader is 
used. 

At planting time, if two-year-old trees are used, four or five 
main branches should be selected for the main framework, and 
all others, including the central leader, removed if the open- 
head system is to be employed. These branches should be 
shortened, leaving them 20 to 24 inches long. If the modified 
leader tree is desired, the center leader should not be removed, 
but should be shortened somewhat in proportion to but not so 
much as the main branches. Three or four additional frame- 
work branches are then selected during the next two or three 
years, after which the leader is suppressed by cutting it back 
to an outward-growing branch. If one year-old whips are 
planted, these should be cut back to 24 to 30 inches, with 
similar treatment as the head develops. 

Pruning during the first three or four years should con- 
sist of light thinning out, the removal of crossing and inter- 
fering limbs, and light heading back to outside buds or branches 
in order to encourage a more spreading habit. Most of the 
crop is borne laterally on spurs in the sweet cherry. The tree 
branches very little as it gets older, and it is consequently 
unnecessary to thin out very much to admit light and air. As 
the trees increase in age, it may be desirable to do some cut- 
ting back of the upper limbs to outward-growing branches 
in order to cause additional branching, new spur develop- 
ment and an invigoration of the old spurs. 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 



257 



(6) The Modified Leader System Is Desirable for Training 
Sour Cherries. The amount to cut back two-year-old sour 
cherry trees at planting time is a debatable question. In 
some regions, especially in some southern sections, many trees 
die if headed back at transplanting time. However, in parts 
of Wisconsin, where a large acreage of sour cherries is grown, 




(Mich. State College) 



Fig. 92. A two-year-old Montmorency cherry tree before pruning (A), 
and after pruning (B) ; only a few superfluous in-growing shoots have 

been removed. 

the trees do better if the scaffold limbs selected are headed 
T3ack to about 18 inches when the trees are set. 

When the modified-leader system of training is used, four 
or five of the strongest and best-placed branches should be 
selected, the leader should be left, and all other branches 
should be removed. The lowest branch is generally 20 to 24 
inches from the ground. During the next two or three years 
four or five additional framework branches should be selected 
and the leader then cut back to an outward-growing branch. 



258 



PRUNING 



Trees pruned by this method are usually spreading, are easy 
to pick, and develop good spur systems (Figs. 92 and 93). 
Crossing limbs should be removed, and if the laterals grow 
more than about 24 inches in length, these should be lightly 
tipped back during the first three or four years to cause 
branching and to prevent legginess. . 




Fig. 93. An Early Richmond sour cherry tree in Wisconsin pruned 
according to the modified center leader system. 



Contrary to popular belief, recent experiments in Wisconsin 
show that bearing sour cherry trees respond well to moderately 
heavy pruning. After six or seven years' growth, care should 
be taken to thin the tops, in order to keep the inner spurs and 
lower fruiting wood healthy and productive. 

Branches growing toward the center of the tree should be re- 
moved and the main limbs should be headed back lightly to 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 259 



outward-growing branches. This type of pruning, together 
with fertilization and good cultural practices, will cause a 
stronger growth throughout the whole tree, the old spurs will 
be invigorated, more blossoms will set, and larger numbers of 
new spurs will be formed. 

It will be recalled from Chapter IV, 'The Growth of the 
Tree and the Forming of Fruit Buds,^^ that fruit buds of the 
sour cherry are producing laterally on one-year shoots and on 
spurs. Short terminal and lateral growths 5 to 8 inches in 
length usually form fruit buds at each node, and as a result 
no leaf buds are available for developing fruit spurs. When 
longer shoots (10 to 18 inches in length) are produced, fewer 
lateral fruit 'buds and more spurs are formed. A tree with 
numerous spurs has a much larger fruit-producing system, and 
in the Northern regions buds on spurs seem to be more re- 
sistant to winter freezing than those on shoots. Under such 
conditions it can readily be seen why a heavier type of prun- 
ing for increasing terminal and lateral growth, in order to 
develop a large spur system, would be desirable. 

The Plum 

Although there are several different species of plums, the 
chief species grown are the Japanese plums {Prunus salicina) , 
the European plums and prunes {Prunus domestica) , and the 
Damsons {Prunus insititia). The Japanese varieties usually 
make a more spreading growth than the others, and come 
into bearing earlier. 

The Japanese varieties usually bear more fruit laterally 
on one-year wood, like the peach, than do the other kinds 
of plums. Considerable fruit of all plums is borne on spurs. 
These spurs are often quite short, causing the lateral buds 
to appear in clusters in the Japanese plums. 

(a) Young Trees Should Be Pruned Rather Lightly, 
Plum trees need very little pruning while young. The Japanese 
plums are generally pruned by the open-head system, whereas " 



260 



PRUNING 



the European varieties are more often trained with the center 
leader. However, the modified-leader system is satisfactory 
for all plums and should be used more widely. 

The Japanese varieties should be pruned a little more 
heavily than the others in order to obtain trees of good shape 
and to cause a good growth of shoots, upon which new spurs 

and considerable fruit are 
borne the following year. 
This heavier cutting is es- 
pecially important with the 
Burbank, which is a low- 
spreading grower. Thinning 
out of slender branches 
seems especially desirable 
with this variety. Other 
varieties which make a 
narrow, upright growth, 
such as Wickson, should be 
headed to outward-growing 
branches in order to secure 
a more spreading tree. 

Most of the European 
varieties develop into trees 
of good shape even if very 
little pruning is done. It is 
well to keep the centers of 
the trees thinned sufficiently 
to admit sunlight and thus 
maintain a healthy spur 
system on the main limbs. 
(b) Bearing Trees Require Heavier Pruning, The Japa- 
nese plums bear such heavy crops while young that they soon 
need a heavier type of pruning in order to stimulate new 
shoot growth, keep the spurs in a healthy condition, and pro- 
duce fruit of good size. Owing to the characteristic growth 
of the trees, it is usually necessary to do some heading 




(Cornell E(cp, Station) 
Fig. 94. Bearing European or Do- 
mestica plum tree after pruning. Note 
that thinning out and light heading 
back have been practiced. 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 261 



back of the terminals and laterals in addition to cutting back 
the main limbs to outward growing branches. 

The European plums should be thinned out by removing 
some of the small branches and by heading back the main 
limbs lightly to outward- 
growing branches (Fig. 
94) . After these trees have 
become quite old and have 
borne many crops, ter- 
minal growth is usually 
short and spur growth 
very weak unless heavy 
pruning, fertilization, and 
good soil management are 
practiced. With such trees 
a thorough thinning of 
the smallj thickly spurred 
branches should be made 
and the lower limbs, as 
well as the tops of the 
main limbs, should be 
thinned out and shortened 
back to healthy lateral 
branches (Figs. 95 and 
96). This heavier prun- 
ing will admit more light, 
invigorate the old spurs, 
cause a better set of fruit, 
and increase terminal 
-growth so that new spurs 
will be formed. 




Fig. 95. The ends of a lateral branch 
on an old plum tree. The spurs are very 
weak; very little terminal or spur 
growth is being made. Increased prun- 
ing, cultivation and fertilization of the 
soil would promote growth and fruit 
production. 



The Apricot 



The fruit-bearing habit of the apricot is in general quite 
similar to that of Japanese plums. Much of the fruit is borne 



262 



PRUNING 



on short spurs along the branches, but a portion of the crop is 
also produced laterally on the one-year-old shoots. 

The pruning of the apricot should be much the same as that 
described for the Japanese plum. The fruit spurs of the 




Fig. 96. This illustrates the results of prun- 
ing an old prune tree. At right, an unpruned 
branch; at left, a branch pruned two years 
before picture was taken; in center, branch 
pruned one year before picture was taken. 
Pruning has resulted in new growth of wood 
and the formation of vigorous spurs. 

apricot are shorter-lived, however, than those of plums, and 
as a result a slightly heavier pruning should be practiced 
with the apricot in order to keep the spur-system renewed. 

As the trees become old and especially after several heavy 
crops have been produced, it is desirable to increase the amount 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 



263 



of pruning in order to stimulate growth and increase the size of 
fruit. 

The Quince 

Practically no experimental evidence relative to the best 
method of pruning the quince is available. 

In general the trees are trained to a low-spreading head, 
the centers are kept open, and some heading back of the main 
limbs is practiced during the first few years. 




(E, Tf. Mitchell) 



Fig. 97. This illustrates an effective home-made type of brush pusher. 
The job of gathering and burning brush in a modern orchard is sub- 
stantial and difficult. This pusher is tractor operated. Take two 
hickory, ash or oak pieces, 2 inches by 6 inches, about 18 feet long; 
lay them under the tractor and fasten to drawbar as shown in Fig. 98. 
Flare the pieces outward in front of the tractor, but allow clearance 
when tractor wheels are cramped. Bolt chains from two points on 
the long cross piece to the front axle to permit steering the device, 
and bolt on short pieces as shown ta make a rigid job. Taper the 
prongs on top surfaces; erect a strong well-braced guard for the engine 
radiator. Allow space back of guard for cranking the tractor. The 
brush packs on firmly and can be pushed directly on to the fire, 
backing the tractor away. Do not build large fires. Small fires are 
more convenient and safer. 



264 



PRUNING 



It will be recalled from the chapter on the growth of the 
tree and the forming of fruit buds that fruit is borne on the 
ends of small shoots which grow from the terminal or lateral 
buds formed on the previous season's growth. Although old 
trees generally bear some fruit annually, even without pruning, 
this type of fruiting suggests that in addition to thinning out 
the bearing tree, some heading back to laterals should be 
practiced so that new growth will be stimulated each year. 




(E. W. Mitcheliy 



Fig. 98. Showing detail of hitch of brush pusher to tractor. 

5. Determining Pruning Costs. The cost of pruning is 
influenced by many factors: age of tree, variety, height and 
width of tree, kind and amount of previous pruning, and the 
type of labor. The New York State Experimental Station at 
Cornell has found that for most varieties the cost of pruning 
can be reduced by pruning every other year. Its experiments 
indicate that equally good yields of quality fruit may be ob- 
tained by this biennial practice. This means a considerable 
saving in pruning time. Up to picking time in the Hilton area 
of New York, from 1928 to 1931, with both sod and cultivated 
orchards, labor for pruning made up one-half of the total labor 
cost. It was found that in orchards 30 years old or older, 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 265 




(E. W, MitcTiell) 



Fig. 99. The brush pusher (Fig. 97) in operation. 
TABLE 37 



Percentage of Trees Pruned and Number Pruned per Day, 
BY Age, Hilton Area, 1928 to 1931* 



Age of Trees in 1930 


Records t 


Total 
Bearing Trees 


Trees 
Pruned 


Trees Pruned 
in 10 Hours 




Number 


Number 


Percent 


Number 


60 or more 


92 


18,048 


43 


6.2 


50 to 59 


71 


11,696 


46 


4.7 


30 to 49 


106 


18,385 


48 


6.0 


20 to 29 


157 


37,040 


65 


12.8 


10 to 19 


118 


25,873 


48 


12.7 


All ages 


544 


111,042 


53 


9.0 



* Adapted from Relation of Soil and Cultural Practices to the Costs and Returns in 
Producing Apples, Hilton Area, Monroe County, New York (unpublished thesis for degree 
of Ph.D., Cornell University, p. 33, 1934), by C. C. Spence. 

t Includes all cost records taken each year. 



266 



PRUNING 



one man can on the average prune and dispose of the brush 
from 6 trees in 10 hours. In younger orchards one man can 
care for twice as many trees. (See Table 37.) 

In Berrien County, Michigan, in 1935, on 80 farms, where 
most of the trees were between the ages of 15 and 30, the total 
cost of labor for pruning, for trimming, hauling, and burning 
the brush averaged $2.66 per acre. One acre required 15.3 
man-hours and 3.4 horse-hours. Man labor was paid at the 
rate of 15 cents per hour and horse labor at 11 cents per hour. 
Most of these orchards were under partial or complete culti- 
vation. 

In 1930 and 1931 in the Piedmont area of Virginia, with 
trees of bearing age, the average cost per acre was $4.36 and 
$3.02 respectively. (See Table 38.) 

TABLE 38 



Cost of Pruning and Removing Brush, Piedmont Area, 1930-31 



Item 


1930 


1931 




Number 


Number 


Records included 


22 


17 


Total acres, bearing orchard . . 


1,476.5 


1,160.5 


Acres pruned 


1,357.5 


893.5 




52,661 


36,004 




Per Acre 


Per Tree 


Per Acre 


Per Tree 




Pruned 


Pruned 


Pruned 


Pruned 


Man labor: 


Number 


Number 


Number 


Number 




17.0 


0.44 


14.7 


0.36 




4.12 


0.106 


2.73 


0.068 


Horse work: 












1.9 


0.05 


2.4 


0.06 . 


Dollars 


0.24 


0.006 


0.29 


0.007 


Total cost, dollars 


4.36 


0.112 


3.02 


0.075 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 



267 



Peach trees may be pruned much more rapidly than apple 
trees, both because they are smaller and because the wood is 
softer, cutting more readily. In the Shenandoah-Cumberland 
region it was found that trees from 7 to 14 years of age could 
be given a light but thorough pruning involving thinning and 
some heading back of main branches in 10% to 14.7 minutes 
per tree. Younger trees require correspondingly less time. 

GENERAL INFORMATION 

Bemoval of Trees from the Orchard 

It is sometimes necessary to remove part of the trees in orchards that 
have been planted too closely. Various methods of accomplishing this 
are employed. 

A good method is to fasten a chain around the main branches several 
feet above their point of union with the trunk. Hitch a team or tractor 
to the chain about 20 to 25 feet from the tree. As the team pulls, 
workmen •cut off roots on the opposite side with mattocks or axes. 
Change the direction of the pull and cut off other roots until the tree is 
loose and leans over so that the remaining roots may be severed. This 
plan works very well in light soils but has been used successfully with 
large trees on heavy soils. In the latter case, however, a charge of 
dynamite under the center of the tree will help to loosen the roots. 
Large roots remaining in the soil may be removed quickly by attaching 
the chain to them. 

A block and tackle is sometimes employed, but is a slower method. 

Some growers cut off the top at the base of the main branches and 
leave the trunks until they decay. This works quite well with peaches, 
the wood of which decays quickly. 

In soils that are disked rather than plowed, the soil may be dug away 
from the trunk and the trunk sawed off just below ground level. 

COMMUNITY STUDIES 

1. Visit several different orchards in the community at pruning time 
and secure data on the following questions: 

(a) Age and kind of trees being pruned. 

(b) Severity of pruning. 

(c) Are the trees being headed back? If so, why? 

(d) Are the cuts being properly made? 



268 



PRUNING 



(e) Are desirable pruning tools being used? 
(/) Do stubs ever heal over? 

(g) To what form of head are the trees being trained? 

(h) Determine whether certain branches have been dwarfed by 

pruning. 

(i) How many minutes does it take one man to prune a tree, and 

what is the cost per tree? 
(;) Does hea^^ heading back cause more branches and thus a 
denser tree? 

ik) Are the large pruning wounds being protected from the 
weather, insects, and diseases? 

2. Notice that some varieties normally grow upright whereas others 
make a spreading growth. Should an attempt be made by pruning to 
make all trees assume the same shape? 

3. Secure permission to prune some of the trees in your community as 
a demonstration. Keep records on the time and cost of pruning. Leave 
some trees unpruned, and note the difference in wood growth and color of 
fruit at picking time. 

4. Find two orchardists in your community, one who prunes heavily 
and one who prunes lightly, and note the comparative size of trees of the 
same age and variety in the different orchards. Determine which trees 
bear the earliest and most fruit. 

5. Select one or two old apple trees in your community, and give them 
a rejuvenation pruning; have them fertilized if possible, record the 
yields of fruit, and use them as a demonstration to encourage the better 
care of old trees. 



CHAPTER VI 



CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 

The control of insects and diseases is one of the major 
problems of the fruit grower. The destructive work of these 
organisms reduces both the quantity and the quality of the 
fruit, the vitality and life of the tree may be impaired, and the 
investment in materials, equipment and labor to control them 
constitutes one of the chief items of expense in fruit production. 

Insects and diseases cause annual losses that run into 
staggering sums. First is the direct loss from the work of the 
organisms, and then the expense of materials and labor, of 
investments in equipment, in order to control them, as well 
as the reduction in vitality of the tree or plants, affecting 
productivity and perhaps length of life. One authority states 
that from 20 to 40 percent of the fruit crop in the United 
States is destroyed each year by insects alone. The problem 
is not merely to find materials that will control but materials 
that the grower can afford to use and that will control the 
organisms without injury to the fruit plant. 

Most kinds of fruit cannot be changed from one field to 
another on a short rotation, as may be done with annual crops. 
An apple orchard is fixed for the better part of a lifetime. 
The fruit grower cannot employ rotation as one of his major 
weapons in insect and disease control, as is frequently done 
with annual crops. 

There are natural forces which exert a measure of control 
over insects and diseases. Late frosts, cold winters, dry 
spells all have their effects. Diseases among insects, predaceous 
and parasitic insects and even birds may greatly reduce the 

269 



270 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



numbers of prospective pests. These agencies and factors 
have a bearing on the situation but the grower cannot rely 
upon them to solve his problem. 

Spraying involves the application of materials in dust or 
liquid form to fruit plants as a preventive and combative 
measure against the attacks of insects and disease. How- 
ever, though the grower may resort to other measures at 
times, his main reliance is found in the spraying program. 

Operations: 

1. Determining insects and diseases to be controlled. 

2. Selecting and preparing materials for control. 

3. Determining time of application of materials. 

4. Selecting machinery and equipment for making applications. 

5. Applying materials. 

6. Determining costs of spraying program. 

7. Adopting control measures other than spraying. 

L Determining Insects and Diseases to Be Controlled. The 

grower must know the major organisms that are destructive 
and injurious to his fruit enterprise before he may proceed 
intelligently with their control. 

He need not know each intimate detail of their life his- 
tories. He may well leave such studies to the trained ento- 
mologists and plant disease workers attached to the experi- 
mental stations that serve his section. Certain pests, however, 
are standard in the sense that they are present each year and 
sufficiently serious to require control measures. Others are 
standard but seasonal, being present and destructive only 
under certain conditions. The grower must know these stand- 
ard pests and the conditions governing their presence, and he 
must be able to recognize the evidences of their presence. 

Procedure : 

(a) Consider the feeding habits of insect pests. 
(6) Consider the nature of disease attacks, 
(c) Consult experiment stations and other sources for com- 
plete information. 



DETERMINING NATURE OF ORGANISMS 271 



(a) Consider the Feeding Habits of Insect Pests. Control 
of insect pests may best be approached from a study of their 
methods of feeding. Chewing insects possess hard mouth 
parts with which they bite off portions of the leaves, plant, 
fruit, etc., actually taking some of these materials into their 
bodies. The tent caterpillar and codling moth are illustra- 
tions, both being destructive in the larval stage. The former 




Fig. 100. Some insects with biting mouth parts, (a) Grasshopper. 
(b and e) Beetles, (c and d) Sawfly larvae. (/) Caterpillar. 



feeds chiefly on the leaves, the latter chiefly on the fruit. See 
Fig. 100. 

Sucking insects possess mouth parts in the form of a beak 
or slender tube which they insert beneath the exterior surface 
of the object on which they are feeding, drawing or sucking 
the juices from within the tissues. The San Jose scale and 
aphids, or plant lice, are examples. The mosquito illustrates 
the same type of feeding on human beings. See Fig. 101. 



272 CONTROLLIXG INSECTS AND DISEASES 



Other insects possess mouth parts which permit them to 
lap or lick up liquids from the outer surfaces of the object on 
which they feed. The adult fly of the apple maggot and the 
cherry fruit fly are illustrations. 

As the insect passes through dift'erent stages of develop- 
ment (metamorphosis) , it may possess dift^erent types of mouth 
parts. The larva or worm has biting mouth parts whereas the 
adult moth may lap up its food as in case of the apple maggot. 

(6) Consider the Nature of Disease Attacks. Fruit dis- 




FiG. 101. Some insects with sucking mouth parts, (a, h, c, d, e) Scale 
insects. (/) Leafhopper. {g) Plant Bug. (/i) Aphids. 



eases, with a few exceptions, are of the fungus type, plant 
forms lacking the chlorophyll or green coloring matter of 
common plants and existing as parasites in or on the tissues 
of Wxing plants. x\pple scab and bitter rot are examples. 
Propagation takes place by means of the development of seed 
forms called spores. The wind — including even light air cur- 
rents — rain, insects, and other agents are responsible for 
their dissemination. Fungi need moisture for a period in order 
to develop from the spore stage and to establish themselves 



SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 273 



upon the host. The time of application of control measures 
is influenced by this fact. 

Some fruit diseases, as fire blight of apples, pears, and 
quinces, are caused by bacteria rather than fungi. Since they 
are already established on the host before their presence is de- 
tected, and since any materials that would control them would 
also injure the host plant, they must be fought by methods 
other than spraying. 

Various physiological diseases as bitter pit, drought spot, 
and cork are apparently associated with poor moisture con- 
ditions, and injury from these troubles is reduced when mois- 
ture conditions of the soil are improved. 

(c) Consult Experiment Stations and Other Sources for 
Complete Information. The experimental stations and colleges 
of agriculture are public agencies, established in the various 
states. They are prepared to furnish the latest and most de- 
pendable information available with regard to the insects and 
diseases that trouble the grower. The grower should establish 
and maintain contact with these institutions as a safeguard 
and insurance. 

The commercial grower cannot afford to turn a business 
enterprise into an experimental project. He may, however, 
cooperate with public agencies in conducting field laboratories, 
tests, and demonstrations that have for their object the ac- 
quirement or dissemination of greater knowledge, which in 
turn will bring a larger return to the grower. 

2. Selecting and Preparing Materials for Control. Ma- 
terials suitable for controlling certain insects may be ineffective 
against others, and may be useless for the control of diseases. 
Some materials possess valuable properties for both insect and 
disease control. Some are effective, but cost so much that the 
grower cannot afford to use them; others are effective and 
acceptable as to cost but cause injury to the plant or fruit 
under certain conditions. New materials are continually 
being put forward, and the grower must decide whether or 
not he will discard the old and adopt the new. 



274 



CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



He should base his decision on known facts in order to 
proceed with judgment and with as little risk as possible. 

Procedure : 

(a) Consider materials for insect control. 
(6) Consider materials for disease control. 

(c) Consider agents that increase spreading and sticking quali- 

ties of materials for insect and disease control. 

(d) Consider preparation of materials at home or their pur- 

chase from commercial concerns. 

(e) Select materials for a complete program. 

(a) Consider Materials for Insect Control. Materials 
used to control insects are termed insecticides. For biting 
and chewing insects, a stomach poison is applied to the mate- 
rial on which they feed. 

For sucking insects, materials which suffocate, burn, or 
paralyze them are used. These are called contact insecticides, 
since they are applied directly to the bodies of the insects. It is 
evident that a stomach poison applied on the exterior surfaces 
of the materials on which sucking insects feed would not prove 
effective. 

Insects with lapping mouth parts may usually be controlled 
with stomach poisons since they take up their food from the 
outer surfaces. 

Stomach Poisons 

a: 1. Lead arsenate is the stomach poison in common use. 
Its active agent is white arsenic. White arsenic alone will 
cause burning of fruit and foliage; it is therefore combined with 
lead to reduce this danger. 

Lead arsenate is known as ^^acid,^' or ^^basic," depending 
upon the nature and proportion of the lead-carrying material 
combined with the w^hite arsenic. The acid lead arsenate is in 
more common use and is sometimes called '^standard'' arsenate 
of lead. Basic lead arsenate contains less arsenic, is more 
stable and less likely to cause burning, but is slower in its 



SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 



275 



action than the acid form. However, if used according to 
directions, the acid lead arsenate is not likely to cause burn- 
ing in most parts of the country. In California it has caused 
severe burning, when used with hard or alkaline water. 

Lead arsenate may be purchased in either powder or paste 
form, the paste form differing from the powder only in con- 
taining about 48 percent of water. Most paste arsenates are 
of the acid type. 

Objections to the paste form of lead arsenate are its bulk 
and consequent increased freight and handling costs ; the tend- 
ency of the water to separate out, making it difficult to mix 
before using and affecting the accuracy of the measurements; 
the tendency of the water to dry out of the mixture, leaving 
it more concentrated than the analysis indicates; and the possi- 
bility of leakage and bursting of the package, as a result of 
freezing. Consequently the powder form is more commonly 
used. It is colored a pale pink by most manufacturers so 
that it cannot be mistaken for some non-poisonous compound. 

Arsenic in any form is an active and virulent poison when 
taken internally. It should be stored and handled with this 
in mind. So far as external effects are concerned, it may be 
handled freely by the operator. 

a: 2. Calcium Arsenate, Among other stomach poisons for 
chewing insects, arsenic in combination with calcium as cal- 
cium arsenate is on the market. It is cheaper pound for 
pound than lead arsenate and carries a higher arsenic content. 
It is available in both paste and powder forms. As con- 
stituted at present, it is not safe to use on stone fruits since 
it causes severe burning. It also burns apple and pear foliage 
in some sections. 

In planning a spray program which offers the maximum 
of protection against insect pests without leaving excessive 
spray residue, calcium arsenate is recommended in some sec- 
tions as a substitute for lead arsenate in some of the cover 
sprays. Add 3 pounds of hydrated lime to every pound of 
calcium arsenate to decrease or prevent burning of the foliage. 



276 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



The calcium arsenate should be fresh and of a brand which 
is stated by the manufacturer to be suitable for orchard spray- 
ing. 

a : 3. Zinc arsenate is sometimes used as a substitute for 
lead arsenate. It is somewhat safer than calcium arsenate as 
long as 1 pound of lime is used for every pound of zinc 
arsenate. 

a : 4. Less Common Stomach Poisons. At the present time 
experimental work is in process with a group of new stomach 
poison^ for orchard use. Hellebore, cuprous thiocyanate, 
dinitro-o-cresol, and thiodiphenylamine (phenothiazine) are 
some of the most promising. As yet none of these materials is 
replacing the common arsenic compounds. 

It is certain that investigations will continue until ma- 
terials both effective and economical, lacking the burning 
properties of arsenic compounds and the undesirable accu- 
mulation of poisons (spray residues) on the fruit, are devel- 
oped. Progress in this direction should be watched carefully. 
In the meantime follow the recommendations of your local 
experiment station. 

Contact Insecticides 

a : 5, Lime-sulfur is a standard insecticide for sucking in- 
sects which must be fought with a contact application. It is a 
solution looking much like a red-brown syrup, obtained by 
boiling together fixed amounts of burned or stone lime, sulfur, 
and water. It is much used for control of San Jose scale. 
It is one of the safest and best sprays to use in the dormant 
season when the foliage is off, and has no bad cumulative 
effects from years of use. It is not in common use as a 
summer spray for insects, since on m^ost trees it would injure 
the foliage, or even cause defoliation, at dilutions strong 
enough to be effective. It is used extensively for the summer 
control of fungus diseases. 

The manufacture of lime-sulfur, or concentrated lime- 



SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 



277 



sulfur, as it is often called, is well standardized. It is avail- 
able from many commercial concerns, being supplied usually 
in drums or barrels holding 50 gallons. Its strength is deter- 
mined by means of the Baume test, the instrument employed 
being the hydrometer. This records the density or specific 
gravity of the solution. The commercial product should test 
at least 32° Baume; it frequently tests 33°. There should 
be no sludge or precipitate in the bottom of the barrel. 

a : 6. Dry lime-suljur is obtained by dehydrating or ex- 
tracting the moisture from concentrated lime-sulfur containing 
some stabilizer, like cane sugar. It is mixed with water before 
using. It is cheaper to transport and easier to handle than 
concentrated lime-sulfur. It is not so powerful an insecticide 
at the strengths recommended by the manufacturers as con- 
centrated lime-sulfur, and at present prices is more expensive 
on the basis of active ingredients. It seems necessary to use it 
in larger amounts for effective results than the manufacturers 
recommend at present. 

a : 7. Tobbacco preparations are valuable contact insecti- 
cides. Nicontine is the effective agent. It is a powerful, 
quickly acting poison, very toxic to many insects. These 
preparations may be used on tender foliage without injury. 
They are employed extensively for the control of aphis and 
red bug. 

The common commercial form is a concentrated solution 
containing 40 percent of nicotine sulfate; other preparations 
containing different proportions are also available. 

The value of nicotine sprays is affected largely by tern-' 
perature changes and the hardness of the water used for dilu- 
tion. They function best at warm temperatures and when the 
air is quiet enough so that the fumes generated do not dissi- 
pate rapidly. Hard water increases the toxic effect of the 
application. Soap is often added to increase the spreading 
properties of the material. 

Most nicotine trade names give an indication of the per- 
centage of nicotine present, for example ^^Black Leaf 40." 



278 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



Tobacco preparations in dust form are also available. 
They are used extensively on vegetable crops and to some* 
extent for fruit. They have been developed recently and their 
use is likely to expand as they are further perfected. 

Tobacco dusts are obtained by impregnating some suitable 
carrier, as hydrated lime, with free nicotine or nicotine sul- 
fate, or by grinding tobacco refuse into a fine powder. Tobacco 
refuse gives dust of an uncertain strength and effectiveness. 
Some growers make their own dust from hydrated lime and 
nicotine sulfate. 

Dusts made with free nicotine are more volatile and 
quicker in their action than those made from nicotine sulfate 
containing 40 percent nicotine. This is an advantage since 
insects succumb more readily to the dusts of higher volatility. 
Such dusts, however, are more expensive than those of slower 
action. The strength of nicotine in these preparations is ex- 
pressed either as the percentage of actual nicotine in them, or 
the percentage of nicotine sulfate, which is but 40 percent 
nicotine. A 2 percent nicotine dust is thus nearly 2% times 
as strong as 2 percent nicotine-sulfate dust. (Nicotine is about 
95 per cent pure.) This difference should be carefully noted 
in making calculations. 

Nicotine dusts should be purchased in tight containers. The 
containers should be kept closed and as nearly full as possible, 
because the dusts lose strength rapidly on exposure to air. 

a : 8. Oil sprays possess considerable insecticidal value. 
They spread well, permeating every crack and crevice. Their 
use is limited, however, because of their caustic effect upon the 
foliage and tender bark and because they cannot be used in 
combination with any sulfur sprays. They do not corrode 
metal parts of a sprayer but cause the rubber parts to de- 
teriorate rapidly. Oils may not be used in freezing weather, 
jor upon stone fruits at any season. 

Emulsification. So that the oil may mix freely with water 
for dilution in a spray tank, a third material, an emulsifier, 
is added. Several emulsifying agents are on the market under 



SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 279 



trade names. They may serve as spreaders and stickers as 
well. They are in a liquid or powder form and usually have a 
soap or casein base. Bordeaux mixture is an excellent emul- 
sifier and may be used as a fungicide in the same application. 
A miscible oil is a clear oil which contains an emulsifying 
agent and will mix when poured into fresh soft water. An 
oil emulsion is a grayish white cream which contains an emul- 
sifying agent and consequently may be diluted with water. 
These two are the most popular forms of commercial orchard 
spraying oils. 

Kinds of Oil 

Petroleum oil is used to control lecanium, San Jose, and 
scurfy scale; for cleaning up bad outbreaks of leaf roller; to 
check pear psylla, European red mite, and probably apple 
red-bug eggs. It is used for dormant spraying only, and if 
applied for too many years in succession it may injure the tree. 
Petroleum oil may be bought as a crude oil, in a miscible 
form or as an emulsion. 

Tar oil, a coal-tar creosote product, usually sold as an 
emulsion, is used to control aphid eggs, bud, moth, oyster 
shell scale, and scurfy scale. It is not effective against San 
Jose scale. This oil is very caustic to the skin, and if the 
weather is at all windy during spraying, it must be handled 
with care. It is applied during the dormant period. 

D.N, oil has been used as a dormant spray with some de- 
gree of success. D.N. is an abbreviation for the mixture of 
96 percent by weight of lubricating oil and 4 percent of dinitro- 
orthocyclohexylphenol. As yet it should be used cautiously 
until more experimental work has been done. 

Tar lubricating oil, a mixture of tar oil and petroleum oil 
in various proportions, is sold by some manufacturers; it is 
used as a complete '^clean-up'' dormant application. It may 
be mixed and diluted so that there will be the proper amount 
of each type of oil to control the combination of insects 
which are attacking the trees (see Table 40, page 290). Tar 



280 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



lubricating oils are very dangerous if the buds have swollen, 
if the material is not properly emulsified, or if the mixture 
is not fresh. Otherwise they give good results. 

White oils are highly refined mineral oils which have 
been used on summer foliage and possibly have a place in the 
spraying program of the future. Their greatest disadvantage 
is that they burn foliage which carries a sulfur residue. 

This whole subject of the effectiveness of oil sprays of 
various types and the proper time of application is now in 
a state of flux. Interest is keen, and developments should 
be watched carefully. A report on the subject (Table 39) 
issued by the New York Agricultural Experiment Station at 
Geneva indicates the present status of oil sprays in early 
spring applications. The desire is to use some economical, 
safe material that will control as many pests as possible in 
the smallest number of applications. 

a : 9. Soaps in combination with water possess insecticidal 
properties. They are seldom used alone but rather as constitu- 
ents of oil emulsions or miscible oils, or in nicotine sprays to 
increase their spreading properties and liberate the nicotine. 
Potash fish-oil soap is the common form. Soda fish-oil soap 
will not dissolve so easily. Resin fish oil will not curdle in 
hard water. 

a : 10. Less Common Contact Insecticides. Pyrethrum is 
a powder made from the flower heads of three species of pyr- 
ethrum plants. It is non-poisondus to warm blooded animals, 
but it loses its toxic properties upon exposure and it is difficult 
to find methods of standardization. Rotenone is both a con- 
tact and stomach poison which is harmless to warm-blooded 
animals. It is found in the roots of the derris plant in the 
Malay Peninsula and in cube which grows in Peru. Although 
it is known to be a very good insecticide, its use is limited 
because of the cost of importing the raw material. Elgetol 
is a bright yellow dyestuff which is of value as an insecticide 
and ovicide and for which claims are made as a fungicide. 
It has been used thus far chiefly in the dormant or "bud-break- 



SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 



281 



TABLE 39 

Early Spring Treatments for Apple Pests* 
New York Agricultural Experimental Station, Geneva 



Materials in 
Amounts per 100 
Gallons of Spray- 
Mixture 



Cost 
per 100 
Gallons 
of 
Spray 
Mix- 
ture t 



Pest To Be Controlled 



Euro- 
pean 
Red 
Mite 



San 
Jos6 
Scale 


Oys- 
ter 


Scurfy 


Rosy 


Red 


Bud 


Shell 


Scale 


Aphid 


Bug 


Moth 


Scale 











Dormant Applications 



Lubricating oil, 3 gal. 


0.64 


E 


E 


P 


P 


N 


N 


P 


N 


Lubricating oil, 5 or | 


1.04 or 




E 


EI 


E 


P 


FV 


F 


E 


6 gal J 


1.27 














Tar oQ, 3 gal 


1.26 


N 


N 


F 


F 


E 


N 


P 


N 


Tar oil, 4^ gal 


1.89 


N 


N 


E 


G 


E 


N 


Ft 


N 


Tar oil, 2}4 gal. -|- 




















lubricating oil, 3 gal. 


1.70 


F 


G 


E 


E 


E 


P 


n 


N 


Dowspray Dormant 1 


1.75 to 


)v. 


VI 


E 


E 


E 


F 


E 


P 


2H to 3 gal, . . .J 


2.10 








Elgetol, 1 gal 


2.00 


VI 


VI 


E 


E 


E 


N 


E 


N 


Elgetol, 1 gal. -f lu- 




















bricating oil, 3 gal.§ 


2.65 










EI 






GI 



Breaking-Bud Applications 



Elgetol, 1 gal. 



2.00 VI 



— I — I E I N, I E 



Green- Tip Applications 



Lubricating oil, 3 gal. 




















+ nicotine, 1 pint . 


1.56 


E 


E 






G 


N 


G 


N 



Delayed Dormant Applications 



Lubricating oil, 3 gal. 




















+ nicotine, 1 pint 




















+ Bordeaux 


1.51 11 


E 


E 






G 


N 


G 


N 


Nicotine, 1 pint and 




















lime-sulfiu-,2^ gal.. 




















or wettable sulfur at 




















manufacturer's rec- 




















ommendations 


0.91 n 


N 


N 


N 


N 


G 


N 


G 


N 



* The letters represent the following control: E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor; 
V, variable (sometimes good or excellent control, in other tests fair to poor) ; N, not suffi- 
ciently effective to be practicable, and I, results based on insufficient evidence to be con- 
clusive. A blank space indicates that no data are available. 

t Based on the following price per pound, pint, or gallon; Goulac or Binderine (lb.), 3 J^c; 
lubricating oil (gal.), 20c; tar oil, 83% emulsion (gal.), 35c; nicotine sulfate (pt.), 91c; Dow- 
spray Dormant (gal.), 70c; Elgetol (gal.), $2.00. 

t Should not be used where infestation is severe. 

§ Limited tests. Growers might test it experimentally where leaf roller, bud moth, and 
aphid occur in the same orchard. 

U Cost of insecticide only, as fungicide cost will vary with amount of material used. 



282 



CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



ing^^ stages. Though its use is as yet experimental, it is pos- 
sible that some of the pre-blossom sprays may be omitted if 
Elgetol proves to be effective and desirable. 

(6) Consider Materials for Disease Control. Materials 
used to control fungus diseases are termed fungicides. The 
active agents in most of these materials are sulfur or copper. 
Lime is commonly added to neutralize any caustic action that 
might attend their use. Fungicides prevent germination of 
the spores and the establishment of the fungus upon the host. 

b : 1. Lime-sulfur, or concentrated lime-sulfur, is used very 
extensively for the control of fungus diseases. It is described 
under "Contact Insecticides,^^ a : 5. 

In some sections its use has resulted in a burning of the 
leaves and a russeting of the fruit. The advice of the experi- 
ment station serving the section in which the fruit enterprise is 
located is usually the best guide. 

b : 2. Bordeaux mixture is a combination in certain pro- 
portions of copper sulfate (blue stone or blue vitriol), burned 
lime or quicklime, and water. Thus a common formula is 
1 1 50, i.e., 4 pounds of copper sulfate, 4 pounds of burned 
lime, and 50 gallons of water. 

There is a decided tendency now in practice to include an 
additional unit of lime as a further safeguard against burning. 
Thus, 4-5-50 and 3-4-50 are common formulas among fruit 
growers. 

Bordeaux mixture is a stronger fungicide than lime-sulfur 
but under some atmospheric conditions may cause severe burn- 
ing of fruit and foliage. Some varieties are more susceptible 
than others. In apples, the greatest injury occurs while the 
apple is young and held erect on the blossom stalk. It is evi- 
denced by a russeting of the fruit and in severe cases by sub- 
normal or abnormal development. Bordeaux mixture does not 
seem safe as an apple spray in New England, New York, or 
New Jersey. It is used quite extensively on apples in Nova 
Scotia and in Virginia. 



SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 



283 



Commercial forms of Bordeaux, both paste and powder, are 
available. In general, these are not so desirable as the freshly 
made material. They do not adhere so well to the fruit and 
foliage, are usually less effective as fungicides, and their cost 
is considerably in excess of that of the home-made prepara- 
tion. The commercial forms are useful for the home garden 
where small amounts are required. 

Bordeaux mixture combined with lead arsenate is also 
available commercially as a fungicide and insecticide. Deter- 
mine from the analysis the amount of water-soluble arsenic. 
It should not exceed % of 1 percent, or severe burning may 
follow its use. Use the preparation at such strengths as to 
give the standard applications of both materials. 

b : 3. Sulfur used alone in dust form is a good fungicide. 
It seldom causes, burning. It should be at least 98 percent 
pure, and the particles should pass through a 300-mesh sieve 
(300 meshes per inch, 90,000 per square inch). Fineness of 
division adds much to its adhesiveness and consequent effec- 
tiveness, and coarse dusts should never be used. 

Sulfur dust alone, or in combination with powdered lead 
arsenate and lime dust, is used quite extensively for the sum- 
mer control program on apples, pears, peaches, and cherries. 

b : 4. Wettable sulfurs possess fungicidal value. They 
are mixtures of sulfur with a flux which makes them compat- 
ible with water. Dextrin, flour, glue, and calcium caseinate 
are some of the materials with which the sulfur is mixed. 
Flotation sulfur paste is a good example of this type of 
fungicide. Although each manufacturer gives his own direc- 
tions, usually the diluted spray should contain from 6 to 8 
pounds of actual sulfur in 50 gallons of water and if used in 
conjunction with arsenicals about 2 to 4 pounds of lime to 
each pound of arsenical. This type of fungicide is much 
easier on foliage than lime-sulfur. Not only is it unlikely to 
cause burning, but also it allows the tree to develop larger 
and more healthy foliage. In other words, it exerts no in- 



284 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



hibiting effects. It is not so strong a fungicide as lime-sulfur. 
In very wet periods it is not recommended to replace lime- 
sulfur. Wettable sulfurs are sold under many different trade 
names. Purchase from a concern of established reputation. 

b : 5. Self-boiled lime-sulfur is effective in the control of 
brown rot of the peach and other stone fruits, and is used for 
this purpose by many growers in the peach regions from New 
England southward. It is a very safe form of sulfur from 
the standpoint of injury to fruit or foliage. As the name im- 
plies, its preparation is due to the action of the lime when 
slaked. The formula is 8-8-50: 8 pounds of burned lime, 
8 pounds of sulfur, and 50 gallons of water. The active agent 
is the sulfur; the lime reduces the danger of burning. 

b : 6. Dry mix or New Jersey dry mix is the name given to 
a sulfur-lime mixture used as a substitute for self-boiled lime- 
sulfur for stone fruits and also as a summer spray for apples 
in some sections. It is easier to prepare than self-boiled 
lime-sulfur. Dry mix is not so strong a fungicide as concen- 
trated lime-sulfur and may not be advisable as an apple spray 
for the early applications in some seasons. It does not cause the 
burning that sometimes results from lime-sulfur. It is mixed 
in the dry state and combined with water before using. In 
order to make the mix wettable, calcium caseinate or pow- 
dered skim milk is added to the sulfur and lime. The usual 
formula is 8 pounds of sulfur, 4 pounds of hydrated lime 
(finely ground finishing lime) , and % pound of either calcium 
caseinate or powdered skim milk to 50 gallons of water. One- 
half pound of bread flour may be substituted for the caseinate 
or skim milk. 

Arsenate of lead or nicotine preparations may be used with 
this material. For use with arsenate of lead, double the 
amount of lime. 

b : 7. Other forms of sulfur as colloidal sulfur, barium 
tetrasulfide, etc., are available, and still others are being per- 
fected and put forward each season. All have some, many 
have considerable, value. The grower will do well, however, 



SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 



285 



not to displace the standard materials until new ones receive 
the endorsement of his experiment station. 

b:8. Copper sulfate dust has been used in conjunction 
with lime as a fungicide for apple sprays in Canada. Farther 
south, severe burning has resulted. It is used extensively by 
vegetable growers. 

(c) Consider Agents That Increase Spreading and Sticking 
Qualities of Materials for Insect and Disease Control, Ma- 
terials are sometimes introduced into the spray formula, not 
because of their value as effective agents in themselves, but 
because they affect favorably the physical properties of in- 
secticides and fungicides. They increase the spreading quali- 
ties of spray materials, giving greater uniformity in coverage, 
or increase the adhesiveness or sticking qualities of the spray 
materials, making them effective over longer periods. 

Various milk products have been used in recent years in 
this connection. Casein is the effective agent in the milk 
products. Although most experiment stations make favorable 
reports on spreaders, some experimental results have shown 
disagreement with these findings. In the meantime, growers 
in general are not using these products extensively on account 
of their cost and because they have felt that the benefits were 
not very marked. Further tests and findings should be con- 
sidered carefully. 

c : 1. Calcium caseinate contains about 20 per cent casein 
and 80 per cent of hydrated lime. It is on the market under 
various trade names, to be combined with lime-sulfur, Bor- 
deaux, and arsenical sprays. Dilutions of 1 to 2 pounds per 
100 gallons are recommended. 

c : 2. Skim milk has been used as a substitute for calcium 
caseinate. General recommendations for all fruits indicate its 
use at a rate of 1 gallon to 100 gallons of spray. 

c : 3. Flour, finely ground and of at least 12 per cent 
gluten content, has given excellent results. Any standard 
bread flour meets the requirements; pastry flours and the 
coarse flours do not. Flour is entirely safe with all materials, 



286 



CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



giving no chemical reaction. It is used at the rate of 1 to 2 
pounds to each 100 gallons of spray. Soybean flour and lime 
(1 pound of each to 100 gallons of the mixture) have given 
good results. 

c : 4. Lignin pitch is used with lead arsenate and lime- 
sulfur combinations and as an emulsifier for home-made 
lubrication oil emulsions. It is applied at the rate of % pound 
to 100 gallons of the mixture. 

(d) Consider Preparation of Materials at Home or Their 
Purchase jrom Commercial Concerns, Whether or not mate- 
rials for the spraying program should be made at home depends 
on the complexity of the processes of manufacture, the quan- 
tities of spray materials required, the equipment needed, and 
the final saving in cost over the prepared product. Some 
materials deteriorate on standing and should be prepared 
just prior to their use. Others may be prepared in advance 
and stored until needed. It is not feasible to attempt to 
manufacture arsenate of lead at home. The same is true 
of the tobacco preparations, with the exception of the dusts 
which are sometimes prepared by growers using them in large 
quantities. 

d : 1. Consider the preparation of lime-sulfur. Lime- 
sulfur may be prepared at home. It is made by large growers 
in some sections, especially where the freight rates on the 
commercial products are high. The equipment needed is not 
extensive. 

A common formula is: 

Burned or quicklime 50 pounds 

Sulfur 100 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

Experiment stations will furnish directions for making. 

Commercial forms of lime-sulfur are now so well standard- 
ized, however, so uniform in test, and produced in such enor- 
mous quantities that many growers prefer to use them. 



SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 287 



d : 2. Consider the preparation of Bordeaux mixture. 
This is commonly made by the grower if needed in any quan- 
tity. A common formula is 4-4-50, containing: 



The formula may be 3-3-50 or 5-5-50, etc., varying the 
proportion of lime and copper sulfate to the water. One unit 
more of lime than of copper sulfate, as 4-5-50, gives additional 
insurance against burning and is frequently used by growers. 

Prepare a stock solution by dissolving the required amount of copper 
sulfate crystals at the rate of 1 pound of copper sulfate to a gallon of 
water. Put the copper sulfate in a sack at the surface of the water, 
using a barrel or other wood container for the water. As the chemical 
dissolves, being heavier than water, it will work toward the bottom, 
keeping water in contact with the sack. If the sack is put in the bottom 
of the barrel, the material will dissolve much more slowly. Start the 
process at any convenient time before the material is to be used, since 
it will keep indefinitely. 

Slake the required amount of lime, adding water slowly so that the 
lime breaks down into a fine powder and then into a smooth milky 
mixture. Add water until the proportions are 1 part of lime to 1 gallon 
of water. Keep the mixture covered. 

It is evident that for a 4-4-50 formula it is only necessary to take 4 
gallons of each stock solution to a 50-gallon unit. For a 200-gallon 
spray tank, using this formula, 16 gallons of each stock solution would be 
required. 

If large amounts of stock solution are needed, prepare the copper 
sulfate at the rate of 2 pounds to a gallon of water. If only small 
amounts are required, use hot water in slaking the lime, since cold 
water on a small quantity of lime may check the slaking process. The 
solutions will keep indefinitely so long as they are not mixed. Keep 
them covered to prevent evaporation of water from them, since this 
would change the strength of the stock solutions and lead to errors in 
making dilutions. Put a few drops of oil on the surface of the stock 
solutions to prevent evaporation, or replace the water that has evapo- 
rated, before using. 

In combining the materials for spraying, never put the stock solutions 
together, as the materials will curdle and settle rapidly in the form of 



Copper sulfate 

Burned lime or quicklime 
Water 



4 pounds 
4 pounds 
50 gallons 



288 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



coarse particles. "Put the water between" is an axiom in preparing 
Bordeaux mixture. A good method is to put the copper sulfate solution 
in the tank and add water until the tank is about two-thirds full. Start 
the agitator. Stir the lime mixture thoroughly, and strain the correct 
amount into the tank, washing it in gently with a hose. Fill the tank 
with water and spray out at once, keeping the tank well agitated. If 
the mixture must be kept several hours or longer, add a heaping table- 
spoonful of ordinary cane sugar dissolved in a little hot water to each 100 
gallons of spray material. This will cause it to keep in good condition 
indefinitely. 

Unless sufficient lime is present to neutrahze the copper, burning of 
fruit or foliage may result. The formula is intended to provide the neces- 
sary lime content, but nevertheless the grower should test the material. 
Hold a clean, polished knife blade in the diluted preparation for a 
moment. If no copper is deposited on the blade, the mixture is safe. 
The potassium ferrocyanide test may also be used. If a drop in the 
spray material gives a brown or red reaction, the lime is insufficient. 
If the reaction is yellow, the lime is sufficient to neutralize the copper. 

Hydrated copper sulfate in powder form may now be 
obtained and pom^ed directly into the tank, adding the lime 
as directed. This eliminates making the stock solution of 
43opper sulfate, and it is claimed that results are equally 
;satisfactory. 

Hydrated lime in a very fine state of division may be sub- 
stituted for the burned lime, but is more expensive at the 
present time. It requires 66 pounds of hydrated lime to equal 
^each 50 pounds of the burned lime in the stock solution. 

For the preparation of Bordeaux mixture in large quantities 
and for rapid work in the spraying season, an ample water 
supply is essential. An elevated mixing platform from which 
the materials pass by gravity is desirable. The spray tank 
should be equipped with a large copper or bronze strainer 
with at least 16 meshes to the inch, through which the mate- 
rials pass into the tank. 

Pipes and hose should be at least 2 inches in diameter to 
permit the quick performance of all operations. The stock 
solution tanks should be large enough to hold materials for a 
full day's spraying. 



SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 289 



Another method which may be used without a platform 
is to fill the spray tank about three-fourths full with water. 
Dilute the copper sulfate stock mixture with part of the re- 
maining water, start the agitator, and pour the copper sulfate 
into the tank ; dilute the stock solution of lime with the balance 
of the water, and pour it into the tank. 

Bordeaux mixture will attack iron and steel. Use brass, 
bronze, or porcelain-lined spraying equipment where possible, 
and flush it out with clean water immediately after use. 

d : 3. Consider the preparation of tank-mixed lubricating- 
oil emulsions. The Cornell Experiment Station at Ithaca, 
New York, gives the following directions for tank mixed 
emulsions. 

The tank-mixed emulsions are prepared by several formulas. Many 
growers prefer to emulsify the oil in the tank, using Hgnin-pitch as the 
emulsifier. With the agitator running, put about 10 gallons of water in 
the tank or enough so that pump can work. Wash % pound of lignin- 
pitch through the screen by means of the spray gun. When it is thor- 
oughly^ dissolved in the water, add the proper quantity of oil slowly 
with the agitator running and with the spray gun turned into the tank. 
When it is emulsified, add the full amount of water and spray out at 
once. The quantity of lignin-pitch required will depend on the water 
used. If the mixture foams too much, reduce the quantity. 

Another method is as follows : Place sufficient water in the spray tank 
so that the pump can work. Do not start the engine. For each 100 
gallons of spray, add 1 pound of copper sulfate dissolved in water, then 
add 2 pounds of hydrated lime also in water, stirring meanwhile with a 
stick or paddle. Start the engine, and slowly pour in the proper num- 
ber of gallons of oil to give the percentage desired in the completed 
mixture. Direct the spray gun into the tank and continue the agitation 
until the oil is properly emulsified. In a few minutes or as soon as the 
oil is thoroughly emulsified, fill the tank with water, keeping the engine 
running continuously until the tank has been sprayed out. If it is 
necessary to stop the sprayer, and any considerable quantity of oil 
separates out (streaks of free oil floating on the surface), the remainder 
in the tank should be discarded unless it can be brought back into an 
emulsion. If more copper is desired for fungicidal purposes, use 3 or 4 
pounds of copper sulfate and twice as many pounds of hydrated lime. 



290 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 

Table 40 gives a dilution table for tar-distillate emulsions, 



TABLE 40 

Dilution Table for Tar-Distillate Emulsions* 



Percentage of Oil in Stock 
Emulsion as Purchased 



Number of Gallons of Emulsion to Be Used 
for 100 Gallons of Spray Mixture 



iar Oil 


Petroleum 
Oil 


For Cherry 

Aphis 
(2 per cent 
tar oil) 


For Rosy 
Aphis 
{2}/2 per cent 
tar oil) 


r or bcuriy fecale, 
J3ua Moth, or 
Oyster-Scale- 
oneu \^y2 per 
cent tar oil) 


95 


0 


2.1 


2.6 


4.8 


85 


0 


2.3 


2.9 


5.3 


83t 


0 


2.4 


3.0 


5.4 


80 


0 


2.5 


3.1 


5.6 


75 


0 


2.7 


3.3 


6.0 


65 


15 


3.1 


3.8 


6.9 


60 


23 


3.3 


4.2 


7.5 


50 


33 


4.0 


5.0 




40 


40 


5.0 


6.3 




37t 


46 


5.4 


6.8 




36 


44 


5.6 


6.9 





* 0.1 gallon equals approximately % pint. 

t These two oils are the ones most commonly offered for sale in New York State. 



(e) Select Materials J or a Complete Program, From his 
knowledge of the insects and diseases to be controlled and of 
the materials used for their control, the grower is in position 
to make up his spraying program. He should then decide 
which materials he will purchase and in what forms, and which 
he will prepare himself. 

He knows that certain materials may be combined with- 
out detriment, thus controlling more than one pest at a time 
and reducing the number of applications needed. Others can- 



DETERMINING TIME OF APPLICATION 291 



not be combined without changing the materials physically, 
making it difScult to apply them, or changing them chemically, 
resulting in injury to tree, fruit, or foliage. 

The grower will purchase his materials well in advance of 
the spraying season at a time when the market is most favor- 
able. This is usually in early winter. The materials should 
be stored in such a way as to make them convenient of access 
and to prevent mistakes in identification of materials and the 
possible use of the wrong material. Where unskilled help 
must be employed, especial precautions should be taken to 
prevent such mistakes. 

3. Determining Time of Application of Materials and 
Amounts to Use. The grower knows that chewing insects are 
controlled best with stomach poisons. These may be applied 
before the insects appear and within comparatively wide and 
somewhat flexible limits. 

Sucking insects, on the contrary, requiring contact sprays, 
must be fought with materials applied directly to them. The 
applications, therefore, may be made only when the insects are 
present and usually within narrow time limits. 

Fungus diseases require the presence of moisture for an 
extended period to enable the spores to germinate and the 
organism to establish itself. Since control measures are ineffec- 
tive after the fungus is once established on the host, it has 
become a rule in fruit growing to apply fungicides before 
rainy weather. 

Consult Spray Program for the Region. Experiment sta- 
tions have developed spray programs or schedules adapted 
to certain sections, which through a combination of insecticides 
and fungicides will control most of the common insects and 
diseases with a minimum number of applications. Become 
familiar with the program for your section. Follow it care- 
fully. Since new or more complete information is appearing 
each year, the program is subject to change, and the grower 
must be continually on the watch for better and less expensive 
methods of accomplishing his purposes. 



292 



CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 




DETERMINING TIME OF APPLICATION 



293 



2 ^ 23- 



O)^ <1> 5 U. 

•C, « P o . 3 



5«o 



<3 
1 



Si 

I 



oa w 



C3 



3 a: 

ir! S 



.2 . S 

« p a 



21a SiS 



es.S pa - 

05 e a w) 

0 _S "i^ o 



^ a> 

i.i 



a a 



C3 ^ 



J-S 0.22 



o . 

i§ 

o 

bC fe 
O C5 



gj2 c S o5 
^ u, a 

o _r p j3_o2 



a a ^E^:^ 



o ^ 

c3 1^ 



03 M K 



I a 

■TS (-1 

o o 



:3 

I a 

T3 t-i 
O O 



o ce 



"1 -o 

^^^^ 



'3 aj^a o 
<b 

Si a s 



is 2i a 

o , > 

.2'2-te 



£ So 

03 

^ o 



2 

0. a ^ 



05 a ^ 

lilt 

»-( — ►o 

a> a 25 S3 

(-incc! a 



.0 

■ o 



,a s g 
c» a 



o ^ 

'— ' 05 O 

S ^-^ 

C3 M 2 

a 

woo 

a^ 

-73 I a; 



a^ 
^ s 

" C3 



«*- CD 



c3 c3 



""-a 



-^2 

<» 2 o o 



5 1 



w 

c a 

cola 



6h ^ 



•<s> 



o 

i^.al 
s^ag 



. a. 



g a 

O ^ ?3 



22 w 
.2I 

o ^ 

a ^ 

o +^ 




CONTROLLING INSECTS 



AND 



DISEASES 



s 



Explanations 


For the control of pear psylla use 
an oil spray as an early spring 
application Ix'fore egg laying 
begins. Apply with the first gocxl 
spraying wciithcr. Refer to St^c- 
tion 47 for specific instnictions. 


This is good insurance against 
scab on any susceptible variety 
and should everywhere be made 
on Flemish Beauty or similarly 
susceptible varieties. 


This should always be made in 
districts where scab is prevalent 
and everywhere on varietira such 
:us Flemish Beauty In ftiany 
parts of the state, however, scab 
is seldom serious on most vari- 
eties. In such cases measures 
for its control may not be 
necessary. 




Bordeaux may be omitted if scab 
and leaf-blight are not present. 
Refer to Section 47 for the sum- 
mer treatment of psylla. 


Warning. Important 

Govern the use of lead arsenate 
during the summer by the preva- 
lence of codling moth. Read 
carefully Section 46. 


Bordeaux mav be used at this 
time on varieties very susceptible 
to scab. Read carefully Section 46 


To Control 


Psylla, scale insects, and mites. 


Scab, leaf-bhght, curculio, and 
bud moth. 


Scab, Iciif-blight, curculio, and 
bud moth. 


Scab, leaf-blight, codling moth, 
curculio, and other chewing 
insects. 


Codling moth, curculio, other 
chewing insects, scab, and 
leaf-blight. 


Codling moth and curcuho. 


Codling moth and curculio. 


Codling moth and curcuho. 


Materials 


Oil emulsion. 3% heavy oil, or 
a commercial oil spray. 


Bordeaux 3-8-100 and lead 
arsenate 3 lb. in each 100 gal. 
Refer to Sections 16 and 17 
for instructions for making 
Bordeaux. 


Bordeaux 3-8-100 and le^ui 
arsenate 3 lb. in each 100 gal. 
Refer to Sections 16 and 17 for 
instructions for making Bor- 
deaux. 


Bordeaux 2-8-100 and lead 
arsenate 3 lb. in each 100 gal. 
of spray. 


Bordeaux 2-8-100 and lead 
arsenate 3 lb. in each 100 gal. 
of spray. 


Lead arsenate 3 lb. and water 
to make 100 gal. 


Ixiad arsenate 3 lb. and water 
to make 100 gal. 


Lead arsenate 3 lb. and water 
to make 100 gal. 


Application 


1. Dormant. Apply with the 
first good spraying weather 
in March or early April. 


2. Delayed dormant, or pre- 
pink. Latter stage is 
shown at left. 


3. Pink. Apply when the 
buds have separated in 
the clusters but before the 
blossoms have opened. 


4. Petal-fall or calyx. Just as 
the petals are falling. 


5. Pint cover. Two weeks 
after petals fall. 


5a. Second cover. Two weeks 
after AppUcation 5. 


5b. Third cover. Two weeks 
after Application 5a. 


6. Summer generation. Time 
determined the same as for 
apples. 



DETERMINING TIME OF APPLICATION 



295 



c3 a 
II 



-a 'o ^ 



a- 

© o 
I? 



O O 



I T3 



o 2 



^1 



-2 5:? 

V (-1 

w O 

is -+3 



•a « 

O ^ 



^ So 

"O 

55 c3 



C5 
O 



CZ2 . 3 
^ CO 

.S 

02 



e3 o 



^1 

12 



e3 o 



O o 

M CO 





'o 












tar and 
lext colur 


iterials 




oil, 
Seei 




Lime-sulfur, 
DNOCHP.* 





c3 O 

1| 

- o 

1^ <:« 



<^ O 



IS « 



u, O 

O bD 

c o 
o 

•43 >^ 

■g CO 



«3 



« d u 

go c 

^ . o 

W) o . 

M o S S 

«H 



i ^ I 



11 



2 

•43 o 

03 bO 



=2 ;3 



^ .2 



1"^ 



0 CO 
Eh § 

1 a 



O bO 

. a 

II 

03 



id 



CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



c 



"2 =3 
C3 o 



O c« 



8:2 

^ o 



c5 o 
IS « 



o 



5sO 



-I 

2 > « ^ 
5 c« « ^ 

^ « 3 
«^ -2^ 

is IS ^ 
■tS :S ^ 



3 



£2 o 
— a 

•1| 

O S 



03 a 

^ I 

=S P 



C M 

o >> 



3 o S 

0 <u S 

1 J" s CO 

t a 

S a — ' o 

a-g <^ ^ 

« a C3 CQ 

b ^ 1 S 

o i 

a o a 3 
^3 S 3 



M I 



a 5 g 

o <u ^ 

S a . 

0 »-i i3 fO 
« O . »o 

« a 

>> C3 S O 

-o o o ^ 

1 S|| 

ft <u a a 

ft 43 



2 § i g 

O 1- S3 _ 
u o . ^ 

o a 53 s 

>>! go 

o o .2 g 
ft a> a 



C «2 

03 

o 



2 i 



-a a ^ 

2 C S3 

a «3 te 
oof* 
a 

S =° i=! 

03 O . 

^ a^ g 

« a c3 CQ 

^ a 1^ 

o o 

g a 
a^ 



a 



11 

-a C3 



a 



M^a^ 

^ 03 
^ ft ^3 



3 gco 



1> §: 

sL o fc-i 
6^ ft c« 



8 § 



DETERMINING TIME OF APPLICATION 297 



Typical spray schedules are incorporated herewith. They 
are not intended as guides but merely as illustrations. Sched- 
ules vary for different regions and for the various fruits. They 
vary also for the same regions in different years, depending 
upon climatic conditions, the evidence of an epidemic of 
disease or insect pests, and the acquirement of greater knowl- 
edge with respect to control. 

In many schedules the proportions of lime-sulfur are given 
as 1-30, 1-40, 1-50, etc. This means that 1 gallon of a stand- 
ard solution is used to 30, 40, or 50 gallons of water. 

Proportions of lead arsenate are given in terms of the 
powdered form, unless otherwise indicated. 

The term nicotine, unless otherwise defined, refers to 
nicotine sulfate. 



SPRAYING SCHEDULES, NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF 
AGRICULTURE, 1939 

Cornell Extension Bulletin 314 (revised, 1939) 

Spray Outline for Apples 

Dormant Spray. For the control of rosy aphis, tar-distillate emulsion 
containing 21/^ percent of tar oil in the diluted mixture may be applied 
while the buds are dormant. If the amount of tar oil is increased to 4% 
percent, it will also control infestations of oyster-shell scale, bud moth, 
and scurfy scale. 

The different brands of tar-distillate emulsions vary considerabl}^ in 
composition. Tar-distillate emulsions should be applied in the spring 
before the buds show green at the tip and should not be used on trees 
that are winter-injured. 

For San Jose scale and red-mite eggs, a 3-percent lubricating-oil 
emulsion may be used. Under certain conditions the oil emulsion may 
be combined with a tar-distillate emulsion. 

For severe infestations of the fruit-tree leaf-roller, lubricating-oil 
emulsion diluted to contain from 5 to 6 percent of actual oil in the 
spray may be applied. Scurfy scale is held in check by the 6-percent 
concentration. The treatment is made after the buds have begun to 
swell but before they show green at the tip. 



298 



CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



DN oil has been used successfully for several years in the control 
of certain pests. The suggested recommendations are 2 gallons of DN 
oil to 100 gallons of water for rosy aphis, San Jose scale, and scurfy 
scale, and from 2% to 3 gallons for bud moth and oyster-shell scale. 
The material is applied in the spring before the buds show any green. 

Green-Tip Spray. The green-tip spray is suggested in large orchards 
where it has been difficult to cover the entire orchard for aphis contrv^l 
in the limited time permitted at the regular delayed-dormant stage. 
While nicotine sulfate and lime-sulfur 1-50 usually proves more satis- 
factory at the delayed-dormant stage than at other times, it has been 
found possible to obtain commercial control with nicotine and a 3-percent 
lubricating-oil emulsion when the buds are showing green tips and the 
aphis eggs are not yet hatched. At this time the eggs are susceptible to 
the effect of nicotine sulfate in combination with lubricating-oil emul- 
sion as given in the following formula : 

Bordeaux mixture * 2-4-100 

Lubricating oil 3 gallons 

Nicotine sulfate t 1 pint 

Water to make 100 gallons 

* The Bordeaux is used to emulsify the oil and will also aid in preventing 
early apple-scab infection. If scab is not a problem, pound of li^in-pitch 
may be used instead of the Bordeaux mixture to emulsify the oil. 

t The nicotine may be omitted if tar distillate emulsion or DN oil has been 
used in the dormant spray or on non-aphis-susceptible varieties, such as Mcintosh, 
unless bud moth is a problem. 

San Jose scale, bud moth, and European red mite are also held in 
check by this application. 

Delayed -Dormant Spray (when the leaves of the blossom buds are 
out from % to % inch) 

Lime-sulfur 2 gallons 

Lead arsenate 3 pounds 

Nicotine sulfate 1 pint 

Water to make 100 gallons 

Three pounds of hydrated lime included in the spray mixture tends 
to reduce the danger from arsenical injury. 

The addition of % pound of lignin-pitch improves the spreading 
qualities of the spray mixture. 

Lime-sulfur is included for the control of apple scab. 

Lead arsenate is used for the control of case-bearers, the tent cater- 
pillar, and other chewing insects. .It is of value also in the control of 
apple scab. 

Nicotine sulfate is used primarily against the rosy and green aphida 



DETERMINING TIME OF APPLICATION 299 



and the bud-moth larvae. If the trees have been sprayed previously 
at the dormant or green-tip stage for these pests, the nicotine may be 
omitted in the delayed-dormant application. The nicotine may also 
be omitted on non-aphis-susceptible varieties, such as Mcintosh, unless 
bud moth is a problem. 

For the nicotine spray to be most effective against the rosy aphis, it 
is necessary to delay spraying until nearly all the eggs have hatched. 
Under normal weather conditions this has taken place by the time the 
opening leaves have reached the stage indicated, and that is usually 
early enough for scab control. In exceptional seasons, however, apple- 
scab infection may occur before the aphis eggs have hatched. Under 
such circumstances Bordeaux mixture in the green-tip application, or an 
additional early application of 2 gallons of lime-sulfur, may be re- 
quired for scab control before the delayed-dormant spray. 

Some growers prefer to apply the oil spray at the delayed-dormant 
stage instead of the dormant or green-tip stage for the control of scale 
and red mite. The spray should be completed before the leaves roll 
back and expose the blossom buds, to avoid the danger of russeting the 
fruit. 

Pre-Blossom Sprays 

, Lime-sulfur 2 gallons 



The same suggestions relative to lime and lignin-pitch as those men- 
tioned under the delayed-dormant spray are followed. 

It is advisable to increase the lead arsenate and lime to 6 pounds 
each if leaf-roller is a serious problem. 

If dust is used, a 90-10 sulfur-lead-arsenate mixture is indicated. If 
conditions are favorable for severe scab infection, the grower should 
spray as much as possible, using dust to complete the operation on time. 

The pre-blossom spray or sprays, applied between the delayed- 
dormant spray and the bloom, are timed primarily for scab control. 
The points to be considered in timing the applications are: the occur- 
rence of rain periods; the amount of new growth; and the stage of 
development of the scab fungus. In some seasons two pre-blossom 
applications may be required for effective scab control, especially on 
extremely susceptible varieties such as Mcintosh. 

Calyx-Spray (when the last of the petals are falling) 



Lead arsenate . . 
Water to make 



3 pounds 
100 gallons 



Lime-sulfur . . . 
Lead arsenate . , 
Nicotine sulfate 
Water to make 



100 gallons 



2 gallons 

3 pounds 
1 pint 



300 



CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



The same suggestions relative to lime and lignin-pitch as those men- 
tioned under the delayed-dormant spray are followed. 

If red bugs are not present, nicotine sulfate should be omitted. 

It is advisable to increase the lead arsenate and lime to 6 pounds 
each if leaf -roller is a serious problem. 

If wet weather prevails during bloom and if scab control is doubtful, 
or if scab spots are present on the leaves, lime-sulfur is preferred. With 
dry weather during bloom and no scab present, wettable sulfurs may be 
used to reduce the danger of spray injury. 

The calyx spray is applied chiefly to control apple scab and to 
poison the codling-moth larvae which later enter the blossom end of 
the fruit. 

In orchards where the plum curculio is a problem, this application also 
affords early protection against this pest. 

If dust is used a 90-10 sulfur-lead-arsenate mixture is indicated. 
If conditions are favorable for a heavy infection of scab, the grower 
should spray as much as possible, using dust as a supplementary 
measure. If red bugs are to be controlled, a separate application of a 
2-percent nicotine-lime dust is indicated. 

Curculio Spray (seven to ten days after the calyx spray) 

Lime-sulfur 2 gallons 



The same suggestions relative to lime and lignin-pitch as those men- 
tioned under the delayed-dormant spray are followed. 

This spray is timed primarily for the control of the plum curculio, 
but it is also very important for the control of apple scab. Protection 
will also be afforded against rose leaf-beetle or rose chafer in orchards 
where these pests are a problem. The same considerations exist as in 
the calyx application with respect to the substitution of wettable sulfurs 
for liquid lime-sulfur in this application. 

If dust is used, a 90-10 sulfur-lead-arsenate mixture is indicated. 

Summer Sprays. The purpose of the summer sprays is to control 
codling moth, apple maggot, and apple scab. 

It is the usual practice to include a fungicide in all the summer 
sprays for scab control. If a lime-sulfur schedule has been used 
through the primary infection and practically all early infections have 
been prevented, it is advisable to use one of the wettable sulfurs as a 
fungicide in the summer applications to reduce the danger of injury to 
foliage and fruit. In seasons when scab is not a problem, the fungi- 
cide may be omitted from some of the summer sprays during or pre- 



Lead arsenate 
Water to make 



3 pounds 
100 gallons 



DETERMINING TIME OF APPLICATION 



301 



ceding hot periods. However, a fungicide should be included in the 
last summer application unless a thorough examination of the trees, 
especially in the tops, shows that the scab is not a problem. 

In planning a spraying schedule for the summer applications — that 
13, after the calyx or the curculio spray — it must be kept in mind that 
the regulations of the Federal Food and Drug Administration do not 
permit more than 0.01 grain of arsenic trioxide or more than 0.025 
grain of lead per pound of fruit. A tolerance of 0.02 grain of fluorine 
per pound of fruit is allowed. These requirements may be met either 
by removing the residue by washing, or by modifying the schedule to 
keep the residue below tolerance. AVashing is an additional expense; 
a modification of the schedule to keep the residue below tolerance 
may result in loss from codling-moth and apple-maggot infestation. 
If the grower is in a position to have his crop washed, he can follow 
a schedule designed to give adequate protection against these pests. 
It is at present impossible to suggest an entirely satisfactory schedule 
for those who cannot wash their fruit. The later sprays may be omitted, 
the strength of the insecticide reduced, or the materials less likely to 
leave excessive residues may be substituted for those ordinarily used, 
but these modifications will not invariably insure freedom from exces- 
,sive residue. 

The experience of growers and investigators over a period of years 
indicates that in most orchards representative of Hudson Valley con- 
ditions a spray schedule may be designed which offers possibilities of 
obtaining a maximum of protection against insect pests without run- 
ning into difficulties from excessive spray residues. This program, 
referred to as a non-washing schedule, involves the substitution of cal- 
cium arsenate or basic zinc arsenate for the lead arsenate ordinarily 
used. A program to be followed where the fruit may be washed if 
necessary is referred to as a washing schedule. Both these schedules 
.are given in the following paragraphs: 

Non-Washing Schedule 

{where an effort is being made to avoid washing the fruit) 

-First Codling-Moth Cover-Spray (about June 10 to 15) 
Wettable sulfur (at manufacturer's directions) 
or 



Lime-sulfur (if scab is a problem) 

Lead arsenate 

Water to make 



2 gallons 

3 pounds 
100 gallons 



302 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



The same suggestions relative to lime and lignin-pitch as those men- 
tioned under delayed-dormant spray are followed. Where arsenical 
injury has been severe in the past, 2 pounds lime to each pound of lead 
arsenate is suggested. 

If home-made wettable sulfur is being used, % pound of skim milk 
powder or 1 pound of soybean flour may be included in the spray 
mixture as a spreader. 

This application will also afford protection against rose leaf-beetle 
or rose chafer in orchards where these pests are a problem. 

If dust is used, a 90-10 sulfur-lead-arsenate mixture is indicated. 

First Apple-Maggot Spray, or Second Codling-Moth Spray (about 

June 25 to July 1) 

1. Formula for varieties ripening later than Mcintosh and Cortland. 
Wettable sulfur (at manufacturer's directions) 



or 

Lime-sulfur (if scab is a problem) 2 gallons 

Lead arsenate 3 pounds 

Water to make 100 gallons 



For a spreader at this time, % pound of skim milk powder or 1 pound 
of soybean flour may be used with lime-sulfur or in home-made wettable 
sulfur. If dust is used for this application, a 90-10 sulfur-lead-arsenate 
mixture is suggested. One pound of lime is used with each pound of 
lead arsenate. Where arsenical injury has been severe in the past, 
2 pounds lime to each pound of lead arsenate is suggested. 

2. Formula for Mcintosh, Cortland, and other early varieties. 
Wettable sulfur (at manufacturer's directions) 



or 

Lime-sulfur (if scab is a problem) 2 gallons 

Calcium arsenate-* 3 pounds 

Hydrated lime 9 pounds 

Water to make 100 gallons 



The same suggestions relative to spreader as those mentioned in the 
first codling-moth cover spray are followed. If dust is used, a 90-10 
sulfur-lead-arsenate mixture is indicated. 

* Basic zinc arsenate, 3 pounds, may be substituted for calcium 
arsenate. One pound of lime is used with each pound of zinc arsenate. 



DETERMINING TIME OF APPLICATION 303 



Second Apple-Maggot Spray, or Third Codling-Moth Cover Spray 
(about July 15). 

To prevent excessive spray residues, the use of calcium arsenate or 
basic zinc arsenate is suggested at this time on all varieties as follows: 

Wettable sulfur (at manufacturer's directions) 

Calcium arsenate * 2 pounds 

Hydrated lime 6 pounds 

Water to make 100 gallons 

The same suggestions relative to spreader as those mentioned in first 
codling-moth cover spray are followed. If dust is used, a 90-10 sulfur- 
lead-arsenate mixture is indicated. 

Washing Schedule 
{where fruit may he washed if necessary) 

The following formula may be used in all three of the cover sprays 
outlined in the non-washing schedule. 

Wettable sulfur (at manufacturer's directions) 



or 

Lime-sulfur (if scab is a problem) 2 gallons 

Lead arsenate 3 pounds 

Water to make 100 gallons 



For a spreader, ^2 pound of lignin-pitch may be used with lime- 
sulfur or in home-made wettable sulfur for the first cover spray, and 
% pound of skim milk powder or 1 pound of soybean flour in the second 
and third cover sprays. One pound of lime is used with each pound of 
lead arsenate, or 2 pounds of lime with each pound of lead arsenate if 
arsenical injury is a problem. 

If dust is used, a 90-10 sulfur-lead-arsenate mixture is indicated. 
The same precautions concerning residue should be taken in dusting 
as in spraying. During prolonged rain periods, it is advisable to make 
dust applications at shorter intervals than are indicated for spray mix- 
tures. When there is already some scab on the foliage, control is made 
more effective by retying on applications of liquid lime-sulfur spray, 
since thorough applications of the material will burn out the scab 
lesions and will prevent in large measure the formation and spread 

* Basic zinc arsenate, 2 pounds may be substituted for calckim 
arsenate. One pound of lime is used with each pound of zinc arsenate. 



304 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



of summer spores. However, the danger from heavy applications of 
liquid lime-sulfur during the summer should not be overlooked. 

Sprays for the Second Brood of Codling Moth 

In most Hudson Valley orchards treatments for the second brood of 
codling moth have not been necessary in past years. In a few orchards, 
where codling moth has become a problem, protection from the second 
brood may be necessary in some years. For this, one or two appHca- 
tions of a fixed-nicotine compound may be used in August. Three 
quarts of summer oil plus % pint of nicotine may be used instead of 
the fixed nicotine. 




{Nciv Jersey Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 102. Peach: left, too early to spraj^ for curculio; center, the proper 

stage; right, too late. 

4. Selecting Machinery and Equipment for Making Appli- 
cations. After the grower has studied carefully his insect and 
disease problems and has worked out his spraying program, he 
must then determine the machinery and equipment he will use 
in carrying the program into effect. It must be adequate for 
the purpose, and it should not represent an investment of 
money beyond the point necessary to accomplish the purpose. 

Many kinds and types of machinery and equipment are 
available. In considering them the grower should take into 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 



305 



1111 i 

Si So 



OT — -O ^ « 



a2 ^IS 

i S « 3 



I— ( o 



bD >> 
C g 



o 

o 

B iw ^ 



-a g o D, 

— CJ 



^ cj u 

i„ c.S 

CJ o 



S . " 

»i; — *j c/i 

m ^ rt o 

w B 3 



i 



Oj5 ^ C9 S 

o 3 K :tr o 

•r O ^ 3 C3 

O 4' >> 



o 



-S B ^ « 

^ ° o 

" ^ °- 



C ■►-> 
C c3 



Q. C 
C. 3 



c 

« 

J 3 

^ O 

"Z o 



c tx B 
^ o S 2i 



2 a 
15 



O ?M 



• - li 

o 

o 

-^1 



O O CJ 

CO 
o — 

B T 

"3 a O . 

W — O 



<1> 5 



a^ 



5 ! c 



-a 



cj S 



O =5 



3 2 



rt o 

O rt 



5» (U 

5^ 



_g 3 rt 



•gJjO rt 



■si. 



©"CO 

rt 



« few 

9 « S 



'■"T3 rt 

^ O O 

O on 

t >> a 
^ rt ^ 

rt 3 » 

>- a 

o__ to 

o >. 

.2 CS g 

0x3?= a 

0 d . o 

S a c rt 
i 

o 0, COTS a 
§5 g rt-o 

rtS £i o 

1 ^° >> 

M o ^ 



^ rt c 
o-a'rt 

rt M 



3 -^j— a, 
«-3^ 
t> c3 o rt 



rt 



° =2' 



rt 9 

o rt C— 
■5^ cc-.l? 



rt 2 c 
is 

"3 C^-i 



5'^ 

J 3 O Si 



o rt 

.o I. 

o o 



— « 



O C 



.XI 
3 4) ■ 



Si 

rt' 



' 3 a> I- c - d, a 



306 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



account definite facts about his fruit enterprise which he him- 
self knows, and equally definite information from authorita- 
tive sources, concerning machinery and equipment. 

Procedure : 

(a) Consider the size of the fruit enterprise. 

(b) Consider the length of time within which applications 

must be made and the number required. 

(c) Consider nature of ground over which work must be done. 

(d) Consider accessibility of the water supply. 

(e) Consider availability of labor. 

(/) Consider comparative merits of spraying and dusting. 

(g) Consider important mechanical features of sprayers and 

equipment. 

(h) Consider important mechanical features of dusters and 

equipment. 

(i) Consider advisability of stationary spray plant. 
(;) Select machinery and equipment. 

(a) Consider the Size of the Fruit Enterprise. This refers 
both to the acreage or the number of trees, and to the size 
of the trees. A machine of a given capacity can do only a 
certain amount of work even when operating at maximum 
efficiency and under the best of conditions. Number of trees 
is a more dependable factor than number of acres, since it is 
the trees that must be sprayed rather than the ground. How- 
ever, acreage and distance between trees may be important 
from the standpoint of the hauling necessary in order to put 
the machine into action. 

A power sprayer capable of carrying one gun at full capac- 
ity should cover 150 to 225 well-grown trees about 20 years 
old in 10 hours. If all conditions are favorable, including 
availability of water, the upper figure is possible, but it will 
not be attained on the average. A two-gun outfit, if it is 
really such in capacity and power and not merely an outfit 
to which two guns have been attached, will cover almost double 
the number of trees except that time consumed in filling and 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 



307 



haulage does not change. Small trees require less material 
and can be covered more quickly. However, more hauling 
and walking are required, and the increase in number sprayed 
is hardly proportionate to the decrease in their size. 

Small trees may, of course, be cared for with lighter and 
less powerful equipment than is needed for large trees. 

(6) Consider the Length of Time within Which Applica' 
tions Must Be Made and the Number Required, The grower 
know^s from his study of insects and diseases the stages in their 
life histories when they may be controlled. He knows that 
he must perform his spraying operations at these times, and 
that if he does not do so, the operations will result in failure. 

For instance, he knows that, whereas he may control peach 
leaf curl by spraying at any time during the dormant season, 
he must spray for aphis when the insect is present and in an 
exposed situation on the buds. He must cover the orchard 
rapidly in a rainy season for scab control. An outfit that might 
be adequate to control peach leaf curl would not do at all for 
some of the organisms that must be controlled within narrow 
time limits during the growing season. 

AgaiU; one thorough application each year is sufficient for 
peach leaf curl and usually for scale. Three or four applica- 
tions may be required for codling moth in regions where there 
are several broods each year, and an even larger number of 
applications may be required for apple scab. These facts 
influence the decision in selecting machinery. 

Further allowance must be made for windy or rainy weather 
during the period when the organisms may be controlled. This 
cuts down the available time and makes it necessary to in- 
crease the capacity of the outfit. In most parts of the country, 
except the Far West, not more than four days out of each 
week are available for effective orchard applications. The 
number is often less. 

(c) Consider Nature of the Ground over Which Work Must 
Be Done. It is evident that level or rolling lands, free from 
rocks, offer fewer obstacles to rapid work than rough or moun- 



308 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



tain lands. Lighter outfits of less capacity may be necessary 
on hilly land than on level land, and the work must conse- 
quently go more slowly. 

(d) Consider Accessibility of Water Supply, Time spent in 
procuring water is time lost in covering the trees. The round 
trip to water one-fourth mile distant will require at least 15 
minutes with a team, 8 to 10 minutes with a tractor, without 
regard to the time spent in filling the tank. Many orchards 
are so poorly located with reference to water supply that nearly 
one-half the spraying time is spent merely in getting the 
water. Growers operating under such conditions are under 
a serious handicap. They need to consider carefully the 
feasibility of applying most of their materials without water. 
If this does not seem practicable, then they may well expend 
a considerable sum to arrange a more accessible supply of 
water. The same outfit will then apply a much greater quan- 
tity of material in the same period, or the grower may reduce 
the equipment needed. 

Together with the convenience of the water supply should 
go arrangements for mixing materials and filling the tank that 
will save time and increase the productive efficiency of the 
outfit. 

(e) Consider Availability of Labor, This implies both 
quantity and quality. Much is involved in the spraying 
operation beside the mere application of materials. The 
machinery is quite complicated; formulas for mixings and 
dilution are exact; the time limits within which effective appli- 
cations may be made are often narrow. The man on the spray 
outfit should visualize the organisms he seeks to control and 
the finished product he hopes to achieve. For these reasons, 
growers with small orchards attempt to handle the spraying 
job through some member of the family who is vitally inter- 
ested. Large growers employ trusted men of more than aver- 
age intelligence to supervise and direct the operation. If only 
a few capable men are available, then a number of high-class 
outfits of large capacity should be considered. 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 309 



(/) Consider Comparative Merits of Spraying and Dusting. 
When materials are applied in water as a carrier, the operation 
is termed spraying; when they are applied in the dry state, 
with or without a carrier, the operation is termed dusting. 
Spraying is the standard practice in most fruit sections at the 
present time. In considering the purchase of machinery and 
equipment for insect and disease control, however, the grower 
will wish to take account of all the factors in the situation, 
including both present practices and probable developments 
in the immediate future. His investment in such machinery 
and equipment cannot be repeated each season. It is impor- 
tant, therefore, that he invest wisely, taking into account both 
general facts and his own special conditions and problems. 
Certain advantages in dusting are apparent. 

1. The work may be done much more rapidly. Dusting 10 acres 
before breakfast or after supper is not at all out of the question. Thirty 
acres of mature apple orchard and 40 acres of peaches may be dusted in 
a 10-hour day with a modern outfit. This is nearly 5 times the average 
that can be covered in the same period with an equally modem sprayer. 
With a large acreage and a short period within which the application 
can be made for the greatest effectiveness, with the period frequently cut 
down by bad weather, and with the importance of reducing labor costs 
to a minimum, this factor assumes great importance. 

2. The labor requirement is less. This relates both to the rapidity 
with which the work may be done and to the number of men required 
to do it. A large dusting outfit may be operated with one-third less 
man power than a large sprayer. 

3. The water requirement is eliminated. No time is lost in hauling 
water or in filling the tank. Sufficient materials for a half-day's work 
may be carried on the machine, and supplies for the entire day may be 
quickly distributed at convenient points throughout the orchard. 

4. The equipment is light. It may be used where the heavy liquid 
outfit cannot be taken, on soft ground and rough land. As a rule, a 
loaded duster weighs less than an empty sprayer. 

5. Dust may be applied when the fruit and foliage are damp, whereas 
for spraying they should be dry. Time is thus saved in the morning 
while the dew is on, or at night after it has fallen, or between showers. 

6. Standard dusting materials are less caustic and hence less likely 
to cause burning than standard spraying materials. This is of impor- 



310 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



tance in those sections where burning frequently results from use of 
concentrated lime-sulfur or Bordeaux mixture. Dusted fruit in such 
sections often possesses a brighter finish than sprayed fruit. 

7. The investment per acre or per number of trees is less with a duster 
than with a sprayer. A good dusting outfit with a small first cost will 
care for a quantity several times greater than an equally good sprayer. 
This materially reduces the overhead costs. 

8. The removal of spray residues from fruit when applications late 
in the season have been necessary is becoming a problem of consider- 
able importance. Dusting materials may on the whole be removed 
more easily from the fruit than the materials applied in liquid form. 

9. Tor home fruit gardens, the small hand duster is much more con- 
venient and usually less expensive than a small sprayer. 

Other considerations not favorable to dusting at the present 
time are: 

1. Materials for dusting are at present more expensive than for 
spraying. The difference is considerable and usually offsets the labor- 
saving factor in dusting. 

2. Dusts to compare favorably in effectiveness with the spray mate- 
rials for dormant applications have not yet been perfected. For in- 
stance, dusts are not effective against San Jose scale at the present 
time. Likewise, aphis, largely controlled during the early part of the 
growing season by nicotine sprays, cannot be controlled satisfactorily 
at present by nicotine or other dusts. 

3. Authorities and growers in various sections disagree sharply con- 
cerning the effectiveness of dusts as compared with sprays, chiefly for 
apple scab. There is considerable agreement that apple insects, with 
the exception of the various scales and aphis, may be controlled effec- 
tively by dusts, during the growing season. There is quite general 
agreement that dusts are effective for the control of insects and diseases 
of the peach during normal growing seasons. 

In New York, Massachusetts, Nova Scotia, Michigan, 
Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Virginia, and some other states, 
experiments favorable to dusting for summer applications have 
been reported. In New York and elsewhere, some large 
growers are relying upon dusts exclusively for scab control. 

In some of these sections, as well as in Indiana, Connecti- 
cut, and New Jersey, other tests have given results in favor of 
spraying. 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 311 



It should be kept in mind that fruit growers have been 
working with liquid sprays and accumulating experience con- 
cerning them for a long time. This is not to be lightly cast 
aside. However, when the same study and attention have 
been accorded the use of dusts, the results may bring about 
radical changes in control methods. 

With the foregoing facts in mind and with a knowledge of 
the comparative results of dusting and spraying attained by 
both experimental agencies and growers in the section where 




(John Bean Mfg. Oo.) 

Fig. 103. The usual method of assembly of a spray outfit, with engine 
at the rear, pump in center, and tank in front. 



his fruit enterprise is located, the grower is ready to make his 
decision between the two methods of application. It is evi- 
dent that, though the decision is in favor of spraying as the 
usual means of control and at present the exclusive means dur- 
ing the dormant season, the duster may still be highly desir- 
able as a supplemental agency to cover the planting quickly 
when the time factor is all-important or when labor is scarce. 
Thus, although most growers own at least one good sprayer, 
using it for dormant and early foliage sprays, many of them 
also own a duster, using it extensively for the regular summer 



312 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



applications or holding it as an insurance and safety factor 
against the time of need. 

(gf) Consider the Important Mechanical Features of Spray'^ 
ers and Equipment, Spray machines are known as power, 
traction^ or hand machines, depending on the source of the 
power for their operation. The commercial grower is primarily 
interested in the power outfit, the term applied to engine- 
operated machines. Such outfits are well standardized, and 
many good ones are on the market. They provide a high pres- 



{Bardie Mfg. Co.) pectcd of it with a rcservc 
Fig. 104. A two-cyclinder pump. left over. A machine oper- 
ated to the full limit of its 
capabilities is subjected to great strain and goes to pieces sooner 
than more powerful machines operating with an ample reserve. 
The capacity of a sprayer is the number of gallons per minute 
that the pump will deliver at a stated pressure, usually 600 
pounds. ]\Iany manufacturers overrate the capacity of their 
machines under actual orchard conditions. Many growers, on 
the other hand, habitually run their pumps with an overload 
that materially reduces their period of service. Allowance must 
be made for the capacity losses due to worn valve seats and cyl- 
inder packing, small leaks, and other minor defects in opera- 




sure when desired, a uni- 
form pressure throughout the 
spraying operation, and a 
capacity ranging from the 
small one-cylinder outfits to 
the giant-powered machines 
used for forest, street, and 
park spraying. 



1. The Pump. The spray 
machine can be no better 
than its pump. Pump ca- 
pacity is important. It 
should be great enough so 
that it may do the job ex- 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 



313 



tion, which cannot be remedied during the height of the spray- 
ing operation, but which nevertheless affect the productive 
capacity of the outfit. A 10-gallon per minute outfit is likely 
to become a 6- or 8-gallon outfit before the spraying is done 
and repairs may be made. 





{Bardie Mfg^ Oo.} 
Fig. 105. A three-cylinder pump. 



Power spray pumps have two, three, or four cylinders 
(Figs. 104 and 105) . Values and efficiency cannot be measured 
solely in terms of the number of cylinders. A pump with three 
small cylinders and inadequate engine power may be inferior 
to a good two-cylinder outfit. 

The smallest power outfits have pumps of two cylinders with 
a 2-inch bore and a 3-inch stroke. They are driven by 1- to 



314 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



3-horsepower engines. Their capacity is from 6 to 10 gallons 
per minute. They will carry one lead of hose and rod with 
three nozzles maintaining a pressure of 400 pounds. This type 
of machine will care for upward of 5 to 10 acres of orchard, 
the determining factor being sufficient time to get the spray 
on during the period of effective control. 

Three- and four-cylinder pumps deliver 15, 35, and as much 
as 50 gallons per minute. They are driven by 5- to 25-horse- 

power engines or by a 
power take-off from the 
tractor. Larger outfits will 
carry two lines of hose with 
6 and 8 nozzles on each and 
still maintain a pressure of 
600 and 700 pounds. The 
grower must decide whether 
he is to use one large out- 
fit or more smaller ones. 

(a) Pump Specifications. 
The pump design should be 
simple with all parts easily 
accessible. Parts subject to 
wear should be so designed 
and located that they can 
(John Bean Mfg. Oo.) be quickly replaced. Many 
Fig. 106. The ball valve gives long spray materials are corro- 
wear without leakage. sive. Parts in contact with 

them are usually of porce- 
lain or brass. Valves of the ball type, made of stainless steel, 
with seats that are quickly replaceable, give greatest satisfac- 
tion (Fig. 106) . Poppet and disk valves do not wear as evenly as 
ball valves, and leakage becomes a serious problem with 
them. 

Pump cylinders (Figs. 107 and 108), are of brass, porce- 
lain, or steel, the steel ones being intended for quick and ready 
replacement. The plunger within the cylinder may be of an 




SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 



315 



expanding type of material creating suction or pressure as it 
works back and forth, or the packing may be stationary at the 
end or top of the cylinder, fitting closely about the piston 
so as to prevent leakage. In the latter type a smooth metal 
plunger is used. In either case, the wear is intended to come 
on the soft, expanding material which is easily replaced, rather 
than on a hard metal part. Pack- 
ing materials may be hemp, com- 
position, candlewickj etc., treated 
with oil or graphite to soften 
them. 

The air or pressure chamber 
is an essential feature of the 
pump. The spray material en- 
ters the chamber under pressure ; 
the air is compressed and aids in 
maintaining an even flow of the 
material to the nozzles. The 
size of the air chamber should 
increase with the size of the out- 
fit. The pressure gage is mounted 
on the air chamber. 

Uniform pressure is further 
insured by the pressure regulator 
(Figs. 110 and 111). In its best 
form it opens when a certain 
pressure has been reached, re- Fig. 107. The detail of a pump 
turning part of the spray ma- cylinder, 
terial to the tank, and closes 

when the pressure falls below this point. Variation in 
pressure is thus taken up in the machine, and the flow of 
material at the point of application to the trees remain 
uniform. 

The pump may be operated by chain, by belt, by yoke, 
or by gear. Gear-driven machines, rigidly mounted, are 
standard, though chain and yoke machines have also given 




OIL WICK 
SHIMS 

DIE CAST BEARING 



DROP FORGED 
CONNECTING ROD 



PLUNGER BODY 

GUIDE 
OIL POCKET 
LOCK SCREW 
PORCELAIN 

LINING 
WRIST PIN 
BUSHING 
OIL POCKET 
STEEL TUBE 
NO LEAK 

CUP 
CUP FOLLOWER 

COTTER PIN 

{Bardie Mfg. Co.) 



316 



CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 




Fig. 109. The hook-up of the cylinders to the source of power. 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 



317 



satisfaction. Belts frequently slip, stretch, wear, or break. 
A belt-driven machine may, however, be stopped quickly in an 
emergency. 




{Bardie Mfg. Oo.) 

Fig. 110. The parts of the pressure-regulator 
mechanism. 



Pumps require thorough and continuous lubrication. Oil 
prevents the grinding and friction of metal parts and keeps the 
packing pliable. Oil cups should be readily accessible, and the 
oil feeds should be simple and direct. 



318 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



The Engine. Gasoline engines of the vertical type pro- 
vide the power on most out- 
fits. It is better to have an 
over-size engine running well 
within its resources than a 
smaller one extended con- 
stantly to its limit of per- 
formance. Seldom, if ever, 
should the engine be of less 
than 2 horsepower; one of 3 
horsepower is necessary for an 
outfit of medium capacity. 
For duplex and triplex pumps, 
successively larger engines 
will be required as the ca- 
pacity increases. Larger ma- 
chines, delivering 15 gallons 
or upward per minute, require 
engines capable of developing 
6 to 10 horsepower, and the 
largest machines develop up 
to 35 horsepower. The num- 
ber of cylinders varies from 
one on the small outfits to 
four on the giant machines. A 
very good source of power and 
one very commonly used to- 
day is the power take-off from 
the tractor. This can drive 
pumps ranging in capacity 
from 15 gallons per minute up 
to the largest built (Fig. 113). 

The engine must be hauled 
about the orchard. It should 
therefore be as light as is compatible with durable and reliable 
performance. Simplicity of operation, a minimum of parts, 




(John Bean Mfg. Go.) 

Fig. 111. A true pressure regulator 
has two valves. When the pump is 
running, but no spraying is being 
done, the upper valve opens to 
take the load off pump and engine. 
A relief valve merely diverts ex- 
cess material back to spray tank, 
but does not relieve engine and 
pump. 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 319 



readily accessible parts, and ease of obtaining new parts are 
major factors, just as in case of the pump. AVater-cooled 
engines with a circulatory water system are standard. Air- 



cooled engines are used by some manufacturers. Magneto 
ignition systems are standard equipment on the newer ma- 
chines; they do not become deranged as easily as the older 
battery systems, but it is well to have a battery system on 



{Rardie Mfg. Co.) 

Fig. 113. A trailer outfit operating by means of a power take-off from 

the tractor. 

hand to use in case of emergency, since the magneto system 
when deranged may require the attention of an expert. 

A governor to control the engine speed as the load varies 
is very desirable and makes it unnecessary to watch the engine 
closely during the spraying operation. 




(Bardie Mfg. Go.) 



Fig. 112. The crankshaft transmits power to 
the pump. It should have plenty of reserve 
strength. 




320 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



A carburetor adjustable at a single point, the needle valve 
controlling the gasoline flow, is desirable. When the point 
where combustion is best has been located, it should be marked 
and changes made only as the temperature varies or as the 
engine through prolonged use varies in the internal relation- 
ships of its parts. 

The oiling system should be thorough but simple, requiring 
a minimum number of operations to care for it. 

Engines are mounted either in front or rear. On a team- 
handled outfit, especially if the horses are uneasy, a front- 
mounted engine is inconvenient to start. Turn the front 
trucks at right angles so that the engine is more accessible. 
On the other hand, the heavy load of material when the tank 
is full moves more easily over the rear axle than over the front, 
which should turn freely. In a few outfits engines are mounted 
on top of the tank, but they are relatively inaccessible, in the 
way of branches, and on the whole inconvenient. 

3. The Tank. Either wooden or steel tanks are used on 
all standard makes of sprayers. The best Western cypress or 
fir is not affected by corrosives used in spray mixtures, and 
for many years they have been very satisfactory woods for 
the manufacture of good spray tanks. Steel tanks are also 
strong and tight. They may be made in almost any shape 
and may be electrically welded and treated to give special 
corrosion-resisting qualities. Wooden stave tanks of a 
U-shape permit the withdrawal of all the material from the 
corners. 

The tank may be mounted above the axles on bed pieces, 
or underslung with the rear axle passing through the tank. 
On hillsides, where it is important to have the center of 
gravity as low as possible to reduce the danger of overturning, 
the underslung tank, though more expensive, is preferable. 

Tank capacity will vary with the topography of the ground 
and with the power available to haul the sprayer. The large 
tank requires few trips to the filling points and is a time saver. 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 321 



Tanks holding 200 gallons are common, though larger ones 
are gaining in popularity. The choice depends on the condi- 
tions. A 100-gallon tank may be as large as can be handled 
under certain conditions. 

4. The Agitator. Many spray materials are in suspension 
rather than in solution. Emul- 
sions have a tendency to sepa- 
rate into their component parts ; 
two or more solutions may not 
mix freely ^Yhen put together. 
For these reasons an effective 
system of agitation of the spray 
materials in the spray tank 
is of great importance. Agita- 
tion may be secured by means 
of propellers attached to a 
shaft running the length of the 
tank near the bottom and con- 
nected to the pump (Fig. 114). 
The number of revolutions nec- 
essary per minute will depend 
on the size of the propellers^ but 
should be from 50 to 60 for 
large ones and a higher number 
for small ones. 

Paddles which sweep the 
entire length of the tank close 
to the bottom to prevent sedi- 
ment from accumulating are 
also used. 

5. Transfer of Material from Tank to Pump. The transfer 
may be by suction or by gravity. Suction feed gives less dan- 
ger of clogging and does not carry over heavy or coarse sedi- 
ment to the pump. A gravity feed is satisfactory for ma- 
terials containing no sediment, but if sediment is present and 
the machine goes out of action even for a short period the 



{Bardie Mfg. Oo.) 
Fig. 114. The agitator operates 
near the bottom of the tank. 
Its speed may be changed by 
altering the size of the sprocket 
at the left. 



322 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



connecting pipe may clog. Since both materials carrying sedi- 
ment in suspension and those which do not enter into the 
normal spraying program, the suction type of feed is preferable. 

6. The Truck, A truck with a heavy steel frame rigidly 
bolted or riveted is best. Rocking bolsters compensate for 
unevenness in the ground, keep the load in proper position, 

under the frame are desirable 
for close quarters and sharp 
turns, as in closely planted 
orchards. Wide tires are best 
on sandy or soft ground. The 
heavier machines are equip- 
ped with tires 5 to 8 inches 
wide. On the other hand, on 
steep, hard ground, narrow 
tires will cut in more and 
give better footing than wide 
tires. 

Pneumatic tires are being 
used on many trucks. There 
seems no doubt that the life 
of equipment mounted on 
rubber is longer. The ease of 
handling and all-round gen- 
eral efficiency make it seem 
likely that before very long rubber mounting will be standard 
equipment. 

7. The Tower. A tower mounted on the tank is desirable 
for spraying tall trees. With the advent of the spray gun 
and the practice of heading trees lower than formerly, the 
tower is not so necessary as in the past. HoweA^er, in many 
places the efficiency of the spraying job would be increased by 
its use. Where trees are 20 feet or more in height, the tower 
should be considered standard equipment. 

8. Nozzles, Nozzles are of two general types. The Bor- 
deaux nozzles exemplifies the first, giving a flat, fan-shaped 




{Bardie Mfg. Co.) 

Fig. 115. The suction strainer in 
the tank should be of heavy brass 
mesh, and readily accessible for 
cleaning. 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 323 



spray. In the second type, the spray emerges from the nozzle 
in the form of a cone. The various disk nozzles and the ver- 
morel nozzle belong to this classification. Differences in form 
of spray in these two types are obtained by differences in 
details of construction of the nozzles. The spray gun shoots a 
cone-shaped spray, unless opened wide, when the spray re- 
sembles that from the Bordeaux nozzle. 

The Bordeaux nozzle gives a direct, driving spray which 
can be applied even in the face of a strong wind. The particles 




(Hayes Pvmp and Planter Oo.) 



Fig. 116. Spray nozzles and accessories taken from a manufacturers' 

catalog. 

100, 102, 109, 113, Disk nozzles. 106, 107, 108, Vermorel nozzles. 

101, 103, 114, Disk angle nozzles. A. Disk nozzle parts. 
10-4, 105, Bordeaux nozzles. B. Nozzle cap parts. 

of spray are not so fine as in the disk nozzle, fineness being a 
desirable attribute for most purposes. Less surface can be 
covered in the same time with the Bordeaux nozzle than with 
the disk nozzles, and its construction causes it to catch more 
readily in the branches. 

Disk nozzles of standard make, designed for the pressure 
that the outfit will carry, are desirable. As the hole in the 
disk wears larger, the greater is the quantity of spray that 
will feed through in a given time, and the more the pressure 
will be reduced. Growers often make the mistake of not re- 



324 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 

placing these disks frequently. A fine driving spray that 
spreads into a cone as it comes from the nozzle and goes on to 
the fruit and foliage in small globules, rather than one that 
washes the tree, is the objective. The Virginia Experiment 
Station found that, at 300 pounds pressure and using arsenate 
of lead, outer spray disk openings of Yiq and i^^ch wore in 
about 45 hours of continuous spraying to 1/12 and Yiq inch^ 
respectively. It would seem then that the outer disks should 

be changed after one week 
of use. 

The shape of the spray 
is determined in the eddy 
chamber, the space between 
the inner and outer disks, 
created by the insertion of 
a washer or gasket from % 
to %e inch thick The outer 
disk has a single opening 
in center. The inner disk, 
usually much thicker, has 
from two to six holes driven 
through at an angle, near 
the outer circumference. 
The deeper the eddy cham- 
ber and the straighter the 
holes in the inner disk, the 
narrower the cone of. spray 
and the greater its driving quality. The spray of greatest fine- 
ness is obtained by a shallow eddy chamber, a decided slant 
to the holes through the inner disk, and a small aperture in 
the outer disk, but its driving or carrying power is reduced. 
Nozzles with six holes in the inner disk, and with a spray 
apperture of Yiq to 1/12 i^^ch, have proved very satisfactory 
and throw the spray much farther than nozzles with but two 
holes in the disk. 

Disk nozzles have capacities ranging from % to 2% gal- 




{Yirginm Exp. JSta.) 



Fig. 117. Nozzles with six holes in the 
disk are favored by some growers. At 
the left the whirl disk and nozzle base 
are in one piece ; at the right the whirl 
disk is removable from the nozzle base. 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 325 



Ions per minute at 250 pounds pressure, depending upon the 
construction details already mentioned. They are frequently 
arranged in pairs or in clusters of three or even more. When 
the nozzles are so arranged, the cone of spray 
is narrowed and the driving power is in- 
creased as the nozzles are brought closer to 
each other, the air resistance being decreased. 
At least one experiment station recommends 
a set of disk nozzles on a spray rod, 8 to 10 
feet long, in preference to the spray gun. 

When rather coarse materials in suspen- 
sion must pass through the nozzle, the larger 
sizes of disk apertures should be used. Angle 
disk nozzles are helpful in reaching the under 
surfaces of the leaves and in giving better 
direction to the spray, and they enable the 
operator to keep out of the spray himself. 
They constitute standard equipment. 

9. The Gun. The spray gun is a disk 
nozzle or multiple nozzle of large capacity ^-^^^^^ ^^^-^^jfco ) 
with a range that may be changed at will. ^ ^ ^ , 
T X .f . 1 ..1 A' ^ u^ lis- Bamboo 

in enect, it is a nozzle with an adjustable ^^^^y ^jth 

eddy chamber in the form of a plunger. The aluminum core, 
gun may be entirely shut off by turning the 
plunger up against the exterior disk. As the plunger is with- 
drawn and the eddy chamber increases in depth^ the cone of 




Fig. 119. A powerful one-nozzle spray-gun of modem design. 



spray becomes narrower, with coarser particles and greater 
driving range. 

The range and type of spray may be changed by a partial 
turn of the hand: foliage near at hand may be coated with a 



326 



CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



fine mist; that at a distance may be reached by a driving 
spray. The gun is light and easy to carry and handle, being usu- 
ally from 18 to 36 inches long and weighing from 3 to 4 pounds. 
It is commonly constructed of brass, but aluminum guns with 
brass nozzles and brass movable parts are now available. They 

are both light and durable. 
(Figs. 119 and 120.) 

The spray gun has 
largely replaced the rod and 
nozzle on power outfits. It 
makes possible the applica- 
tion of large quantities of 
material in a short period. 
A pressure of 400 pounds 
or more is usually needed. 
The spray gun saves time, 
applying 3 to 6 gallons per 
minute, or a larger quantity 
with a double gun. It ap- 
preciably reduces the labor 
cost of application. It may 
(John Bean Mfg. Co.) not save material — ^that de- 
FiG. 120. Spray guns with a battery pends on the agility of the 
of nozzles. operator. 

Much poor work has 
been done with the spray gun, largely because too much was 
expected of it. Some growers have returned to the rod and 
nozzle. The temptation is great merely to stand on the ground 
or spray tank, turn on the pressure, shoot a driving spray at 
the tree, and assume that the job is done. It is true that the 
force of the spray will turn many of the leaves as it strikes 
them, thereby coating the lower leaf surfaces, but this will be 
true of only a fraction of the leaves. The gun does not elim- 
inate the necessity of spraying from the ground, and where 
the trees are headed low, it is difficult to coat the lower leaf 
surfaces thoroughly with this device. 




SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 327 



At low pressures the gun of the usual type will give poor 
results, and many growers have made a mistake in attempting 
to use two guns on an outfit that could carry but one. The 
usual type of sprayer of 3V2 to 4 horsepower will not carry two 
guns of the present types and do a uniformly good job of spray- 
ing. This is because the guns, when operating fully, require 
more material than the pump can deliver. Studies indicate 
that under such conditions the guns will take 4 to 5 gallons 
each per minute while the rated capacity of the pump is only 
8 to 10 gallons per minute, in practice often falling below this. 

Table 41 gives the results of actual orchard tests made by 
the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station* with various 
types of equipment at different pressures. The nozzles listed 
were arranged in sets of three or four. Note (a) that Vs-inch 
spray disk openings are too large to give satisfactory results 
at any pressure used, and (6) that the nozzles arranged in a 
straight line gave as great a delivery of material and fully as 
great a drive of material as the guns. 

Modifications of the spray gun under different names are 
now available, claiming greater perfection in adjustment and 
manipulation. 

10. Spray Rod, Some growers still prefer the spray rod 
(Fig. 118) . One or more nozzles are mounted at the end. Both 
bamboo and iron rods are in use, but the former is much lighter, 
of greater diameter, and easier to hold. It is hard work to 
manipulate a spray rod all day, so that these factors are of 
considerable importance. 

An aluminum or brass core extends through the rod, carry- 
ing the spray material to the nozzle. The fittings holding the 
rod in place must be kept tight or the rod will turn in the 
hands independent of the core. Cracks or checks in the rod 
should be wound with tape as soon as they appear. A collar 
of metal or rubber at the upper end serves as a shield or guard 
to prevent the drip from working back along the rod to the 



* W. S. Hough, Va, Agr, Exp, Sta. Bull 260, 1928. 



328 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



TABLE 41 

Measurement of Types of Spray Produced by Various Equipment 
When Operated at Pump Pressures of 250, 300, and 400 Pounds 



Note. — Except as noted, 50-foot lengths of 3^-inch hose were used. 







Pressure, 


Pressure, 


Pressure, 




Spray 
Disk 
Open- 
ing 


250 Pounds 


300 Poimds 


400 Pounds 


Equipment 


Volume 

per 
Minute 


Spray 
Drive 


Volume 

per 
Minute 


Spray 
Drive 


Volume 

per 
Minute 


Spray 
Drive 




Inch 


Gallons 


Feet 


Gallons 


Feet 


Gallons 


Feet 


1. Four nozzles. . 


He 




12 




15 


^y2 


16 


2. Four nozzles. . 


H2 




12 




15 




17 


3. Four nozzles. . 


Ho 

Vk 

He 






8y2 


15 




18 


4. Four nozzles. . 






t 
13 


5. Three nozzles . 




10 




13 


6. Three nozzles. 


H2 




10 


5 


13 


6 


13 


7. Three nozzles . 


Ho 
Vs 






6^ 


13 




14 


8. Three nozzles . 








? 




9. Double gun . . 


H2 




11 


13 




15 


10. Double gun . . 


Ho 


5% 


11 


&%* 


15 


7^8* 


17 


11. Double gun . . 


Vs 


8 


11 




15 




17 


12. Single gun 


H2 




9 


2V4. 


10 




12 


13. Single gun 


Ho 


3 


9 


Ws 


11 




12 


14. Single gun. . . . 


Vs 


5H 


12 


5H 


13 




13 



* Five-eighths inch hose, 50-foot length. 

t Spray coarse and hfeless, drive very weak. 



hands of the operator. A wet rod is difficult to handle, and the 
material may make the hands sore if they are soaked in it 
continuously. 

For peaches, sour cherries, and small trees, a rod 6 to 8 
feet long is sufficient. A 10-foot rod is needed for apples in 
bearing, and a 14-foot rod may be required if the trees are 
high. Very short rods are sometimes convenient for spraying 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT ^^29 



the under sides of leaves on the lower branches and for work 
at close quarters. 

11. Control. Cut-offs to stop the flow of the material both 
at the base of the spray rod and at the pump are advisable. 
The former is in use continually as the operator manipulates 
the rod and directs the spray. It enables him to save much 
material between trees and to make minor adjustments in the 
rod or nozzles without stopping the engine. At the pump a Y 
connection with a cut-off attached to each prong is best. If 
two leads of hose are employed, one may then be shut down 
for repairs without interfering with the other. 

Cut-offs should resist corrosion, brass being the common 
material for them. They should be simple in construction and 
easily replaced, and the one at the base of the rod should be so 
designed that a partial turn will shut off the flow of material. 

12. Spray Hose. Rubber spray hose for carrying the ma- 
terial from the pump to the rod or gun should be either %, 

or % inch in diameter. The % inch size should be used 
when the nozzles discharge more than 4 gallons per minute; 
the %-inch hose is best for a discharge exceeding 6i/^ gallons 
per minute. The actual inside diameters of and 
%-inch hose are usually %6, Yiq, and %q inch, respectively, but 
the former are trade terms. 

Hose larger than % inch is inconvenient to handle, on 
account of its greater weight, and does not wear so well under 
orchard conditions as that of smaller diameter. 

There is a great variation in quality of hose and no fixed 
standard by which its quality may be determined. It is classi- 
fied according to the number of layers of canvas used in its 
construction, as 3-ply, etc. The quality of these plies varies 
greatly from fine duck to cheap sheeting. The greater the 
number of plies and the better the material used, the more du- 
rable the hose. The best hose usually has from 5 to 9 plies. 

The length of hose required depends primarily on the dis- 
tance between trees and also on the size of the trees, because 
more hose is needed to w^ork about a tree with a top large in cir- 



330 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 




(Hardie Mfg. Oo,) 

Fig. 12L A page of accessory parts from a manufacturer's catalog. 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 331 



cumference than one with a small head. The hose should be 
sufficient so that at least one operator may always be working 
on a tree other than that being sprayed by the man on the 
machine, in order that he may stay out of the mist and drip. 
The hose should also be long enough so that the machine may 
be moved without disturbing the operator until he has finished 
his job. Short lengths hurry the operator and are the cause of 




(John Bean Mfg, Co.) 

Fig. 122. This is a modem type of machine, with center of gravity close 
to the ground, all parts covered and mounted on rubber. The tower 
on top of the tank is essential equipment. 



many incomplete jobs. Hose 50 feet long has been found to be 
about the right length for ordinary apple-orchard spraying, 
giving freedom of manipulation without being too cumber- 
some. For trees planted closely and of small size, 30- to 
35-foot lengths may be adequate. If one lead is used con- 
stantly from the tank, a length of 15 to 20 feet may be suffi- 
cient for this purpose. An outfit of large capacity, 15 gallons 



332 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



or more, may well be equipped with %-inch hose for ground 
work and %-inch hose on the tank. 

If the hose connections from the pump are at the rear of the 
outfit, the hose may be attached conveniently and may easily 
be kept out of the way of the wheels. 

13. Couplings. Hose couplings should be of brass with 
double-length shanks in order to offer plenty of surface for 




(John Bean Mfg. Go.) 



YiG. 123. A front mounting of the tank is unusual and puts much 
weight over the front axle which may impede turning. On a - horse- 
drawn outfit it is easier to start the engine. 

application of the hose clamps. The channels or waterways 
should be large and without obstruction, and the coupling 
should offer good wrench grips on both outer (female) and 
inner (male) sections. Short and cheap couplings give endless 
trouble through bursting or pulling out of the hose. 

Brass hose clamps do not rust and resist chemical action. 
They should be strong and broad so that they may be well 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 333 



tightened without cutting into the fabric. Aluminum and iron 
clamps may be used. Wire clamps are difficult to keep tight 
and are likely to cut the hose. 

The Traction Sprayer, The traction sprayer derives its 
power from the turning of the wheels on which the machine is 
hauled over the ground. Gears of h proper type transmit this 
power to' the pump, through which the spray material passes. 
The pump may possess one, two, or three cylinders (Fig. 125) . 

It is evident that, when the wheels stop turning, the gen- 




[New Jersey College of Agr.) 



Fig. 124. The grower has installed an automo- 
bile engine of four cylinders in this outfit with a 
four-cylinder pump to make a very effective 
spray unit. 

eration of power ceases and the pressure soon runs down. 
Since in orchard spraying the machine cannot be constantly 
in motion, the traction sprayer is not well adapted to the 
spraying of trees. It finds its greatest usefulness for the fruit 
grower in the spraying of grapes, berries, and other small 
fruits, where the machine may continue in motion. The ma- 
chine must work rapidly enough to maintain the pressure 
and slowly enough to permit thorough coverage. A pressure 
chamber helps in this connection 



334 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



Hand Sprayers, Small hand sprayers of varying types are 
available for the home garden. Among these, the knapsack 
sprayer is satisfactory, the operator working the pump and di- 
recting the spray at the same time. Much labor is involved, 
however ; the tank when full is heavy, and the pressure secured 
is not great. 

The barrel-mounted hand pump is a step in advance. It 
will operate one lead of hose and maintain a pressure of 75 to 
150 pounds with a discharge of 1 gallon or a little more per 



Fig. 125. A traction sprayer, pressure being generated as the wheels turn. 

minute through a small-aperture disk nozzle. The cylinder 
should be of brass with a diameter of 2 to 2^4 inches and a 
stroke of 3 to 4 inches. It should be equipped with an air 
chamber to aid in maintaining uniform pressure. All parts 
should be readily accessible. An agitator should be attached 
to the pump handle. The common mounting for the pump is on 
the head of the barrel as the barrel stands in a vertical posi- 
tion. The mounting, however, may be horizontal. 

The barrel sprayer may be hauled on skids or a stone boat, 
placed on a wagon or mounted on wheels. It will answer for 




SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 335 



perhaps one or two acres of trees. Under the best of condi- 
tions, it entails much heavy labor. 

A modification of the barrel pump is the one-cylinder 
double-action hand pump or the two-cylinder pump, mounted 
on a platform, with a vertical handle that the operator moves 
back and forth. He can put the weight of his body into the 
action and develop higher pressure with greater ease than with 




(John Bean Mfg. Co.)] 



Fig. 126. A modern duster. The spring platform on which the operator 
stands takes up shocks and jars and enables the operator to do a steady, 

even job. 

the barrel-mounted pump. The spray material reaches the 
pump through a suction hose from a barrel or tank. Such a 
pump will run one lead of hose at 150 to 175 pounds pressure. 
It will handle up to 5 acres of bearing orchard and is the most 
satisfactory type of machine if the purchase of a power sprayer 
is not warranted. It is especially useful in orchards where the 
trees are only two or three years old, and it does the work 
rapidly with little waste of material. 



336 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



{h) Consider Important Mechanical Features of Duster 
and Equipment. The duster is a simple machine compared to 
the liquid sprayer. It consists essentially of a gasoline engine, 
a hopper for the dusting materials, and a blower or fan which 
forces the material through a discharge pipe on to the trees 
(Figs. 126 and 127) . It is usually mounted on a truck, or on 




(Niagara Sprayer c& Chemical Oo.) 

Fig. 127. This duster operates by means of a power take-off from the 

tractor. 



skids for easy transfer to wagon trucks. Trailer dusters to 
attach to tractors are also available. 

The material feeds through small apertures in the bottom 
of the hopper into the fan chamber. The fan, propelled by the 
engine and revolving rapidly, forces the dust out of the dis- 
charge pipe in a strong air blast. The operator manipulates 
the discharge pipe to send the materials to all parts of the 
trees. 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 



337 



The body of the duster, including hopper and fan, may be 
of light but durable material, as an alloy of aluminum. The 
hopper should be airtight to hold the dust which sifts through 
very small openings. Its capacity should be at least 100 
pounds, equivalent to considerably more liquid spray, to avoid 
frequent stops for refilling. The opening for pouring the dust 
materials from the sacks into the hopper should be large 
enough to make the transfer easy. The machine should have a 
force feed to insure continuous and uniform delivery, with stiff 
revolving brushes inside the hopper to pulverize any small 
lumps and to work the material from the hopper through the 
openings into the air chamber. Machines are now being 
equipped with self-mixers to mix the dusts just prior to ap- 
plication. 

The fan should be 16 inches in diameter with about six 
blades, making 3500 or more revolutions per minute. 

A feed control lever, regulating the amount of material 
passing from the discharge pipe, should be located so that the 
operator may reach it conveniently. The lower section of the 
discharge pipe attached to the feed channel should be of rein- 
forced rubber to provide flexibility in moving the pipe. For 
high trees a third section of pipe should be available. A dis- 
charge pipe 4 inches in diameter is standard. 

Engines of 8 to 14 horsepower, depending on the size of 
the outfit, are required. 

Traction dusters are used chiefly for field crops; hand 
dusters are very convenient for home gardens. 

(r) Consider the Advisability of a Stationary Spray Plant. 
Stationary spray plants are in use in the Pacific Coast states, 
the Shenandoah-Cumberland region of the South, New Jersey, 
Ohio and Canada in orchards varying in size from 5 to 300 
acres. Developed primarily to handle spraying problems on 
irrigated lands or on areas that, owing to special conditions, 
could not be sprayed at the proper time in the usual manner, 
they have steadily increased in number and have made a place 
for themselves in American fruit growing. 



338 



COXTROLLIXG IXSECTS AXD DISEASES 



The stationary plant consists essentially of a pump driven 
by electric or gasoline power and a mixing unit for prepara- 
tion of the spray materials, at a fixed point, with a pipe system 
of mains and laterals extending throughout the orchard, 
equipped with risers for hose connections at regular intervals. 
The spray material is applied to the trees in the usual manner 
by means of hose and rods, or guns, by men who work through 
the orchard, connecting the hose at convenient points. 

Some of the advantages of such a system are at once ap- 
parent: 

1. Spra3ang may proceed on schedule on wet or rough land. In the 
West, irrigation and the use of the portable sprayer often present a diffi- 
cult problem. In all sections periods of hea^T rains often interfere seri- 
ousl}^ with the spraying operations, because the ground is too soft to haul 
the machines over it. In sections where hill orchards and plantings on 
rough lands are common, the stationary plant aids in solving the serious 
problem of doing a thorough and timely spraying job. 

2. The necessity for hauling machines between closely planted trees 
and those loaded with fmit is eliminated. 

3. Damage to cover crops or intercrops is reduced. 

4. The application of materials to the trees goes on without inter- 
ruption. There is no time out for refilling. The amount of effective 
work accomplished by a given crew of men is increased from 25 to 50 
percent over the portable outfit. 

5. It releases teams, tractors, and the men to drive them, for other 
forms of work. 

6. There is less wear and less depreciation on machinery in a fixed 
location and on a solid foundation than on that hauled through the 
orchard. Its period of service is therefore extended. Some plants have 
given satisfactory service for 15 years. 

The chief advantage, already implied, is that it makes the 
grower almost independent of soil or weather conditions, so far 
as his spraying program is concerned. 

On small enterprises, especially where teams or tractors 
are needed for other work and must be retained whether used 
for spraying or not, it is probable that the portable oufit is 



SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 339 



more economical. For the large enterprises and where condi- 
tions require numerous applications of materials, the sta- 
tionary plant is rapidly gaining in favor. 

The Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station found in its 
own orchard that over a four-year period the cost per 100 
gallons of spray material for labor, power, depreciation, and 




(Ohio Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 128. The units in a central or stationary spray plant correspond 
to those in a portable outfit but provide greater power and capacity. 



interest on investment was 15 cents less for the stationary unit 
than for a portable outfit. 

If it seems wise to consider the installation of the sta- 
tionary unit, consult the local experimental station for latest 
findings and recommendations. 

(;) Select Machinery and Equipment, Basing his judg- 
ment on the facts presented in the foregoing sections, the grower 
is now ready to make his choice of machinery and equipment. 



340 



CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



He will try to keep his investment and overhead charges as 
low as is consistent w^ith satisfactory performance and service. 
He wdll give preference to standard outfits of proved ability 
and those for which repairs and service are readily available. 
He will keep in mind that outfits that will do what he requires 
of them w^ell within their resources and without undue strain 
constitute better investments than those constantly crowded 
to the limit. The delivery required of the machine should be 
2 to 4 gallons less than its actual capacity if it is to have a 
long period of satisfactory service. If it requires more 
than five to six days to cover the orchard with a liquid 
sprayer, the grower needs more machines or machines of 
greater capacity. 

In addition to the facilities actually needed under normal 
conditions to do the work at the proper time in the right way is 
the question of what facilities the grower ought to have in 
reserve as an insurance against emergencies and seasons when 
the weather seriously cuts down the period of effective applica- 
tions. He has in mind the actual and probable future labor 
supply and its quality, upon which he must depend. His selec- 
tion is based on a knowledge of his own orchard conditions 
and problems, and on judgment carefully formed in the light of 
them. 

5. Applying Materials. The control program may break 
down at the point of application of the materials. Adequate 
machinery and equipment, proper materials, and a careful 
observance of the time limits for their effective use may fail 
to achieve satisfactory results because of incomplete plans and 
faulty methods of application of the materials. 

Procedure : 

(a) Planning facilities. 

(6) Applying spray materials. 

(c) Applying dust materials. 

(d) Caring for machines and equipment. 



APPLYING MATERIALS 



341 



(a) Planning Facilities. For liquid spraying convenient 
and adequate water supply is of first importance. If the water 
must be pumped, the reservoir in which it is stored should have 
ample capacity for at least a full day of spraying, and an even 
greater reserve is good insurance against delays and accidents. 
A storage that permits filling the spray tank by gravity is best. 
Even though the supply is taken from a running stream or 
lake, many growers prefer to pump the water at first into 
storage tanks from which it may be run quickly into the 
sprayers. A central water supply equally distant from all 
outer points of the orchard is good for large enterprises. A 
man may be located here to mix materials and have them 
ready when the sprayers arrive. 

Some growers prefer a number of smaller filling stations 
throughout the orchard rather than a single larger central 
supply station. This arrangement saves time spent in haulage, 
and it permits work to go on even should a supply unit be out 
of commission. 

If the enterprise is large enough to warrant the extra in- 
vestment, a spare outfit at the central point, ready to operate, 
will save time. As the empty machine comes in, the crew 
simply changes machines and goes on. 

Equipment for preparing the formulas that are made up by 
the grower has already been described in connection with the 
materials themselves. Accurate scales and measuring devices 
should be on hand. Stocks of repair parts and extra parts for 
the machines should be accumulated before the season begins. 
The grower can much better afford to carry the slight extra 
investment in such parts than to be compelled to suspend 
operations while waiting for them to arrive. Some manufac- 
turers attempt to give prompt service on repair parts and ac- 
cessories ; others do not. All are very busy while the spraying 
season is on and cannot handle orders with as much dispatch 
as during the slack season. Among extra parts which the 
grower should have in reserve are: 



342 



CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



Agitator paddles 
Cylinder-head gaskets 
Connecting rods 
Disks for nozzles 
Gaskets for nozzles 
Hose clamps 
Hose connections 
Hose washers 
Nozzles 
Pistons 
Plunger cups 



Pump packing 



Repair tools 
Spark plugs 
Spray hose 
Spray rods 
Stove bolts 
Suction hose 



Suction strainer for hose 



Valve balls 
Valve seats 



Valve springs 



Parts should be classified and stored in separate compart- 
ments, and those subject to corrosion should be protected by a 
coating of hea\y oil or grease. 

For very extensive operations, a complete extra outfit or an 
extra engine and pump with all connections should be held in 
reserve. 

(6) Applying Spray Materials. The careful orchardist will 
plan his organization of labor and the function of each work- 
man thoroughly before the machine goes into the orchard. An 
outfit capable of carrying one lead of hose will require two 
men, one to spray and the other to drive team or tractor. A 
boy may do the driving, and many a good workman in the 
orchard has served his apprenticeship in this way. With a 
large capacity outfit carrying two leads of hose, three persons 
will be needed. If the trees are large, one man should spray 
from the tank and the other from the ground, making the ap- 
plication from both sides of the row. A tower will be needed 
for tall trees. The men can alternate work so as to distribute 
the more difficult roles fairly between them. 

AVith extra-large machines carrying three leads of hose, 
an arrangement of one man to a row on the ground and one 
man on the tower^ covering the tops of both rows, works well 
when the rows are sufficiently close together. 

A spraying method that has given satisfaction is for the 
man on the ground to spray the inner parts of the tops first. 
This eliminates the necessity of walking in under a dripping 



APPLYING MATERIALS 



343 



tree as must be done if the outer parts are covered first. In 
using a gun, it is absolutely necessary to get under large trees 
to do a good job; in using an extension rod with an angle nozzle, 
the operator may move about the exterior circumference of the 
head, spraying inward and upward. 

Air is seldom completely still in the orchard. The side 




(Caterpillar Tractor Co.) 



Fig. 129. Both men are spraying from the ground but do not work 
on the same tree at the same time. This is a good outfit for hilly land. 
The power is from the tractor. This is a Virginia scene. 

where the operator must spray against the wind is the most 
difficult to cover. The operator should direct the spray through 
the tree, making certain that the material carries well through 
to the opposite side. The back sweep of the wind will insure 
coverage of the windward sides of the leaves and fruit. To 
spray only with the wind means that only the surfaces on the 



344 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



windward sides will be covered, as the spray will not drift 
back against the air currents. In spraying from one position, 
however, many more of the leaves will be turned and well 
coated with material when high pressures are used than when 
ordinary pressures are employed. It is not expected that the 
spraying operation will be carried on in the teeth of a strong 
wind, but it is seldom that a still day is available for the work, 
especially in the early spring. A steady wind from a constant 




(Mich. Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 130. These men are using two platforms — one improvised at the 
front of the sprayer. They are using single-nozzle guns and a pressure 
of 600 pounds. Note how the mist hangs on the tree. 

quarter gives less difficulty than a fitful, shifting breeze, whose 
antics cannot be anticipated. 

A method sometimes employed is to spray only with the 
wind ; that is, to spray the windward sides of the trees and then 
wait for the wind to change before completing the job. This 
practice has not given good results and is not recommended. 
Careful examination has disclosed many uncoated areas in the 
tops, and very poor aphis control has been secured. In sections 
where prevailing winds are from one quarter the grower might 



APPLYING MATERIALS 



345 



wait a long time for the wind to change, but the insects and 
diseases that he seeks to control are active all the time. 

Whatever the particular procedure, which, after all, the 
grower must determine in the light of his own conditions, a 
fine, driving, cone-shaped spray that penetrates everywhere 
and settles on the fruit and foliage in small globules is best for 
most purposes. 




(John Bean Mfg. Oo.) 



Fig. 13L Spraying from the top of the tank alone is not the best 
procedure. It is not possible to reach the lower sides of the low branches. 
Note bees at left. They should be removed before the Calyx spray 

is made. 

The orchardist must watch particularly to see that the sur- 
faces away from the wind are well coated, those high up in the 
top often being left unprotected. He must keep in mind that 
the protruding tips of branches on the outer circumference 
of the head are easily missed. A spray gun may be doing a 
good job at close range but delivering only coarse spattering 
drops on the parts farther away. The temptation in using a 



346 COXTROLLIXG INSECTS AND DISEASES 



gun is always to increase the drive and decrease the fineness of 
the spray, and to hurry the operation too much. On the other 
hand, a gun held in one position wastes material and may cause 
injury and burning of the foliage and fruit. Burning is espe- 
cially likely to occur on very humid, warm days when using 
materials that are naturally quite caustic, such as concentrated 
lime-sulfur. 




(Caterpillar Tractor Co.) 



EiG. 132. Note how the spray from the lower gun is driving through 

the tree. 

A disk nozzle may deliver an uneven spray, heaA^ier on one 
side of the cone than on the other, or the cone may be entirely 
hollow in the center. This may be due to a partial clogging 
of the nozzle or to mechanical imperfections. 

In using sprays carrying coarse materials, as self-boiled 
lime-sulfur or the wettable sulfurs, a gun will operate with less 
clogging than a disk nozzle. 



APPLYING MATERIALS 



347 



The careful operator will cease operations occasionally and 
inspect trees that have been covered to determine how well the 
job has been done, and to correct practices and change equip- 
ment when needed, A beginner can employ his time to no bet- 
ter advantage than by watching carefully the spraying methods 




{Oaterpillar Tractor Co.) 



Fig. 133. An empty line sulfur drum is used as a means of support on 
the tank. It is a very satisfactory device. This tree is being well 
sprayed. The operator on the rear platform can cover the lower branches 

if he is careful. 

of a skillful operator who grows good fruit, or better still, by 
spraying with him for a time. 

The amount of material used is not necessarily an index of 
proficiency but may serve as a general guide. A knowledge of 
the quantity is also useful in compiling the order. It varies, of 
course, with the size of the tree. A tree with thin foliage or 



348 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



triangular outline requires less material than one with dense 
foliage and a full head circular in outline. The amount of 
wind present during the spraying operation causes more varia- 
tion in quantity of spray used than any other factor. The 
nature of the organism to be fought is also a factor. Aphis 
control, for example, requires a thorough drenching of the 
affected parts and the consequent use of relatively large quan- 
tities of material. For the dormant sprays 6 to 9 gallons, and 
for the summer sprays 8 to 14 gallons, constitute standard 
applications on mature apple trees in most regions. Since 
every part of the trunk and branches must be covered in some 
dormant sprays, the amount of material used may be as great 
as for a foliage spray. 

(c) Applying Dust Materials, The proper time for dusting 
is when the air is still. There is little waste of materials under 
such conditions, and the dust hangs in a cloud or dry fog about 
the trees for a considerable period. The proper atmospheric 
conditions are found as a rule in early morning or late evening. 
Most orchard dusting, with the exception of nicotine applica- 
tions, is done at these times. The presence of more moisture 
on the leaf surfaces at these periods than at midday causes the 
dust to stick better. Sulfur dusts adhere well even when the 
foliage is dry. Many dusts now in use contain adhesive ma- 
terials. Some growers attach lights to the machines and op- 
erate them through the night; air conditions are good then, 
and the job is hastened by almost continuous operation of the 
machines. 

Nicotine dusts, in order to be effective, should be applied 
when the temperature is high. Fumes are generated more 
readily then than at lower temperatures, and control is more 
effective. For this reason they are best applied at mid-day 
when the air is quiet. Breezes dissipate the fumes before they 
can be wholly effective. In sections where the air is seldom 
quiet at mid-day, early evening is often the best time to make 
the applications. It is a waste of time and money to attempt 
to control aphis with nicotine dust when the wind is blowing 



APPLYING MATERIALS 



349 



or the temperature is below about 65° F. The higher the tem- 
perature, the better. 

Dusting before rainy spells is just as important as spraying 
ahead of a rain, for the control of fungus diseases. Some of the 
dust will be washed off, but enough will remain to inhibit spore 
germination. 

The arrangement of supplies is simpler than for spraying. 
Sufficient materials for a half day may be carried on the 




(Niayara /Sprayer Ohemical Oo.V 



Pig. 134. The duster in operation. The discharge pipe is pointed a; 
little too high so that dust is going over the top of the tree. 

machine, or sacks of material may be placed at the ends of 
rjows. 

In covering the trees, it is not customary to stop, the ma- 
chine moving constantly over the ground. For small trees a 
fast-moving team or tractor is best; for large trees, a slow 
movement gives more time to cover the trees thoroughly. With 
small trees a quick puff made by opening the feed lever as the 
discharge pipe passes the tree and then shutting it off again is 
sufficient. The discharge pipe must be moved enough so that 
the entire top, including exterior tips, is covered. This is a 



350 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



matter of seconds. The operator must be agile in order both to 
do a good job and to conserve material. 

Trees not exceeding in size a commercial peach tree may 
be dusted from one side of the row when dusting conditions are 
good. It is good practice, however, to put on the different 
applications from alternate sides of the row. Thus, if the first 
application is made from the east side, put on the second from 
the west. 

Large trees should be dusted from both sides. Split ap- 




{Mich. Exp. Station) 

Fig. 135. Dusting at twilight. The air is still. Note how the dust 
hovers in the tree at the right. 



plications are sometimes made, that is, dusting one side when 
conditions are right, and dusting the other side a few days 
later when the drift of the wind is in the opposite direction. 
Under such conditions about half the material needed to cover 
the tree completely is used at each application. Nicotine dusts 
should be put on in a single application to secure most effective 
control. 

An upward and downward sweep of the discharge pipe with 
a horizontal stroke across the top gives an even coverage with 



APPLYING MATERIALS 



351 



a minimum of material. To send the material to extreme 
heights, give a sudden upward fling or flirt of the pipe at the 
top of the regular stroke. For very high trees, an extension 
of the discharge pipe may be needed. The parts of the tree 
close to the ground and near the machine are most likely to be 
missed. These may be covered by a horizontal blast to the 
rear as the machine leaves the tree. 

Regulate by the feed-control lever the amount of material 




{Niagara Sprayer & Chemical Co.) 



Fig. 136. A self-directing duster for use on peach and other relatively 
small trees. Its adequacy and economy are not yet fully determined. 

used. Since dusts are expensive, it is important that as little 
as possible be wasted. It is just as important to use enough 
to do a good job. A check on the quantity being used may be 
obtained by recording the amount of material put in the hopper 
and dividing it by the number of trees covered. The quantity 
per tree varies with the size of the tree. The Niagara Sprayer 
and Chemical Company has compiled the data in Table 42 for 
average conditions. The quantities are subject to change to 
meet individual requirements. 



352 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 

TABLE 42 

Quantity of Dust to Use at Each Application 



Amount per Tree, Pounds 



Crop 


1 to 5 
Years 


5 to 10 
Years 


10 to 15 
Years 


15 to 20 

Years 


20 Years 
and Above 




Vs 


Kto 3^ 


1 


13^ to 2 


2 to 3 










1 


1 to \¥2 


Peaches 


^8 


Htoy2 


V2 


¥2 


¥2 


Pears 


Vs 


Mto 


¥2^0% 


1 


1 


Plums and Prunes. . 




H 


¥2 to % 


1 


1 


Quinces 


/4 




%to ¥ 


¥2 


¥2 



(d) Caring for Machinery and Equipment, During the 
operating season keep all working parts thoroughly lubricated. 
Seek to anticipate difficulties and make adjustments before 
trouble really occurs. Put all liquids carrying materials in 
suspension through a strainer in the top of the spray tank; 
wash all materials in powder form through the strainer, to 
prevent the entrance of substances that may clog the valves or 
nozzles. 

At the close of each day of work, put the suction hose from 
the pump into clean water and flush the pump, hose, and noz- 
zles until only clear water comes from them. The equipment 
will thus be freed of corrosive materials and will be ready for 
the next day's work. 

Drag the hose over the ground as little as possible, except 
when actually spraying. Disconnect it at the machine when 
going to refill, or coil upon hangers at the end of the machine. 
Do not permit kinks to form in it, as these injure the fabric. 

When the spraying season is over, flush thoroughly, with 
clean water, all parts through which the spray materials move. 
Drain the pump, engine, and tank. Ruia some used lubricating 
oil through the pump to prevent rusting during winter. Store 



DETERMINING COSTS OF THE SPRAYING PROGRAM 353 



the hose in a cool, dark place, since it deteriorates in heat and 
light. Coil it over a barrel elevated off the ground, or stretch 
it out on a bench or shelf in such a way that it will drain out 
completely. Do not suspend the hose on nails or from a few 
points, as cracking is likely to result. 

In the spring, get the machine out ahead of time; go over 
all the parts and "tune'' it up ready for active use. 

The care of the duster is simple. Drain the engine at the 
end of the season, clean the hopper thoroughly, and coat with 
heavy oil or grease all parts subject to corrosion. If dormant 
dusts are used which cake on the machine parts, especial care 
must be taken to clean the machine well. 

6. Determining Costs of the Spraying Program. Costs of 
the spraying program depend upon a number of factors. The 
cost of the materials themselves may be easily determined, if 
the dilutions used, the number of applications to be made, and 
the average amount applied per tree or other unit are known. 

The cost of making the applications is so variable that av- 
erage figures are of little value to the individual grower. The 
price of labor, the capacity of the outfit, the accessibility of 
water and other supplies, and the topography of the land are 
among the factors that determine costs of application. 

In the Hudson Valley of New York, in 1931, it was found 
that the average cost of spraying for the season was $2.57 per 
100 gallons of spray applied, or $15.68 per acre, which would 
indicate that slightly over 600 gallons of spray material was 
applied per acre. It must be stressed that this is not enough 
to give complete control of insect and disease injury in a 
normal season on full-grown trees. It is merely an average for 
509 orchards where the number of applications varied from no 
spray on 23 orchards, to six or more sprays on 57 orchards. 
Although the trees ranged from newly planted to some over 30 
years of age, the average for trees in the 486 orchards (4319 
acres) that were sprayed was 3.8 applications at a rate of 
5 gallons per tree per application. To grow a crop of good 
quality it is rarely possible to spray less than six times in the 



354 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



Hudson Valley. It was figured that each spray cost an 
average of 28 cents per tree for trees 28 years of age and over, 
and an average of 9 cents per tree for trees of less age. 

These figures include the cost of the spray material, the 
cost of labor, sprayer cost, upkeep, depreciation, and the power 
for drawing the outfit. It has been shown that the New York 
orchards sprayed most often and most thoroughly had yields 
of marketable apples sufficiently high to keep production costs 
down to an average of 73 cents per bushel. Of this cost about 
25 cents was for spraying (see Table 43). 



TABLE 43 

Cost of Producing Apples According to Number of Sprays and 
Amount of Spray Applied per Tree per Application, Western 
New York and Hudson Valley 

Cornell Extension Bulletin 355 



Cost per Bushel 
J Light appHcations } p /. /9 



Less than 

5 sprays | jj^^^^y applications | JjS A O'^ 



5 or more 
sprays 



Light appHcations I J^Q.S^ ~1 

Heavy applications 



This emphasizes that few sprays and light applications may 
be expensive, whereas more numerous sprays and heavier ap- 
plications may, by increasing the marketable product, be 
economical. 

The cost for material, labor, power for pulling the outfit, 
the use of the sprayer, preparing and applying the material, 
for 80 fruit growers in Berrien County, Michigan, for 11 ap- 
plications in 1935 was $27.16 per acre, 12 cents per bushel of 
fruit harvested, or 55 cents per tree. Most of the trees were 
between 15 and 30 years of age. Where trees were less than 



CONTROL MEASURES OTHER THAN SPRAYING 355 



15 years old, the total spraying cost was 44 cents per tree com- 
pared to 62 cents per tree in orchards 30 or more years of age. 
The total cost per 100 gallons of spray applied averaged 
$1.37 in these orchards. 

A similar test in 1931, in the valley area of Shenandoah- 
Cumberland district, showed spraying and dusting costs to 
average $17.30 per acre. Dusting was rarely done, and for all 
practical purposes, 6 spraying applications would include the 
entire operation. Of the 402 acres of trees studied, 261 acres 
were between the ages of 15 and 30. There would be a slight 
increase in cost for the 84 acres which were over 30 years of 
age and a slight decrease for the 57 acres which were from 
10 to 14 years of age. 

In the Hudson Valley of New York 4 applications of dust 
were applied for the same cost as 3 sprays. In western New 
York the cost of applying 8 dusts was about the same as that 
for 7 sprays. These costs include the material, labor, and 
equipment charges. Materials to spray an acre once cost 
24 percent less than dust materials. Interest, depreciation, 
repair, gas, and oil for the sprayer were 73 percent more than 
the corresponding costs for the duster. 

7. Adopting Control Measures Other Than Spraying and 
Dusting. Sometimes measures other than the application of 
materials to the trees may be employed to advantage by the 
orchardist. 

The burning of adjacent hedgerows and cleaning up the 
boundaries of the orchard aid in control of such insects as 
plum curculio and lessen the danger from mice and rabbits. 

There is some evidence that thorough spraying of the apple 
leaves on the ground in early spring may help in scab control. 

The only method known at present for control of cedar rust 
is the removal of all cedars within a radius of one mile of the 
orchard. 

The peach tree borer is controlled best by the use of ethyl- 
ene dichloride or paradichlorobenzene, as indicated under 
General Information at the close of this chapter. Neither it 



356 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



nor the flat-headed and round-headed apple tree borers can be 
controlled by spraying or dusting the tree. 

Eall and early spring plowing destroys many larvae of the 
Oriental fruit moth and aids in scab control by turning under 
the old leaves from which the first infection comes in the 
spring. The use of parasites, especially macrocentrus, to con- 
trol Oriental fruit moth is to be considered. 




(N. Y.'Geneva Exp. Station) 



Fig. 137. Fruiting bodies (perithecia) of apple 
scab on an overwintered apple leaf from which 
spores will be discharged during spring rains. 

Fire blight of the apple, pear, and quince, a bacterial dis- 
ease, does not yield to the spraying or dusting program and 
must be fought by different methods. 

Fertilization and special stimulative treatment, including 
cultivation of affected trees, are sometimes advisable. By in- 
creasing their vigor their resistance is increased and their recu- 
peration is hastened. This method is employed often in cases 
of extreme defoliation of the trees in the growing season and 



CONTROL MEASURES OTHER THAN SPRAYING 357 

in meeting attacks of the fruit tree bark beetle of the peach. 
Trees suffering from winter injury may, to their advantage, 
receive a special application of nitrogen-carrying fertilizer. 

Some varieties are more resistant to disease and winter in- 
jury than others. Thus, Tompkins King, Grimes Golden, and 
Twenty Ounce are susceptible to collar rot about the base of 
the trunk. Northern Spy and Mcintosh are resistant. Grow- 
ers may sometimes resort to top-working desirable varieties 
with weak trunk charac- 
ters, on more hardy and re- 
sistant kinds, as indicated 
in Chapter VII, 'Tropagat- 
ing Fruit Plants.'' Physio- 
logical troubles such as bit- 
ter pit, drought spot, and 
cork are often decreased 
by improving the moisture 
conditions of the soil. 

When the balance be- 
tween organisms is de- 
stroyed, nature intervenes 
to restore it. The San Jose 
scale is the prey of many 
species of ladybird beetles, 
some fungi, and at least 
nine species of Hymenop- 
tera. However, the pests 
are likely to make severe inroads and cause heavy losses for 
several years, until natural enemies become abundant. Some 
pests yield, either not at all or only in part, to s-uch enemies, 
so that the fruit grower may not depend on natural enemies ex- 
cept to supplement his own program of control. 

It is best to rely on the experiment stations and other public 
agencies serving the section in which the fruit enterprise is lo- 
cated, for the detailed information on which proper procedure 
must be based. 




(N. Y.-Geneva Exp. Station) 
Fig. 138. Cross section of perithecium 
showing the spores formed, and ready 
to emerge from leaf in Fig. 137. 



358 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



It is not possible to include here a complete treatment of the various 
insects and diseases that affect fruit trees. Some are serious in one sec- 
tion and less so, or not at all, in another. Some are seasonal in their 
inroads, being destructive one year and unimportant another. New 
and more complete knowledge concerning them and the methods for 
their control is constantly being acquired and is available from authori- 
tative sources. The enterprising grower will keep in touch with the 
experiment stations and government agencies and will study their find- 
ings. He will develop a library of good books and publications on the 
control of insects and diseases of the orchard and will revise it con- 
stantly to keep it up to date. 



GENERAL INFORMATION 

Controlling Peach Tree Borer 

The peach tree borer (Sanninodea exitiosa) kills many peach trees 
and destroys the vigor of others. It passes the winter in the larval form : 
if anall, usually on the bark in silken protective coverings; if larger, in 
burrows under the bark. In the far South the larvae feed all winter 
instead of hibernating. 

In the spring the boring is continued and a cavity is formed several 
inches long in the sapwood, just beneath the bark. Gum and sawdust 
collect at the openings of the burrows and about the base of the tree. 
As many as 50 or more borers may work in a single tree. Most of the 
work is done about the trunk just at or below ground level, though 
sometimes at a greater depth. 

. When full grown, the larva leaves the burrow and pupates in a dark 
round cocoon, usually attached to the bark near the ground. The adult 
fly emerges in about a month, and eggs are soon laid by the female, 
singly ar in small clusters on the lower trunk. The eggs hatch in about 
ten days, and the larvae start their burrows at once. 

Control. Larvae may be dug out with a knife and wire. This 
method is not so satisfactory as the use of ethylene dichloride. 

Slowly stir 9 parts by volume of ethylene dichloride into 1 part 
by volume of potash fish-oil soap. Add 9 parts of water to make a 50 
percent stock emulsion. Dilute, and apply as recommended in Table 44. 
This material may be sprayed or poured on in the fall, winter, or early 
^rmg as long as the weather is warm. Apply the emulsion about the 
base of the tree and on the lower trunk. A knapsack sprayer or a 
sprinkling can with a small spout may be used to advantage. Place a 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 



359 



few shovelfuls of soil around the trunk after the material is applied. 
Ethylene dichloride stock emulsion can be bought ready for dilution 
according to the manufacturer's directions. 

TABLE 44 

Ethylene Dichloride Stock Emulsion Dilutions 



Quantity of Water of Stock Emulsions to Use to Get 10 Gallons of 
Diluted Emulsion at the Strength Used 











Dosage of 






50% 


Strength of 


Diluted 


Age and Size of Trees 


Water 


Stock 


Diluted 


Emulsion 






Emulsion 


Emulsion 


for Each 










Tree 








Percent 


Pint 


6 years and older, average 










and larger size 


5 


5 


25 




6 years and older, small. . 


6 


4 


20 




4 and 5 years 


6 


4 


20 




3 years 


7 


3 


15 






7 


3 


15 




1 year 


sy2 


IV2 


7J^ 


H 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 

1. Visit several growers of each tree fruit of commercial importance 
in the section. Determine: 

(a) The acreage and varieties. 

(b) Injurious insects and diseases for which control measures 

are employed. 

(c) The materials used and proportions. 
{d) Cost of materials. 

(e) Time, number, and cost of applications. 
(/) Method of application. 

{g) Acreage or number of trees and age of trees treated per 
day or hour. 

How much of this time is spent actually in applying the mate- 
rials to the trees? 



360 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 



2. Put these control measures together into a schedule or program 
for the season. 

3. Study the spray outfit as to cost, type, power of engine, capacity 
of pump, durability, ease of handling, accessibility of parts, ease of 
obtaining repair parts, type of gun or nozzle, pressure employed. Inves- 
tigate facilities and devices for saving time in mixing materials and 
filling spray tank and for keeping machine at work continuously. If a 
duster is used, get growefs^ opinion of its place in the spray program, 
the costs as compared with liquid spraying, and the effectiveness of 
control. 

4. From the foregoing information, compute the actual spraying costs 
in the various orchards. 

5. Prepare a brief life history of the important insects and diseases 
of the section. 

Secure from the local state experiment station or college of agricul- 
ture the latest information concerning control measures and materials. 

6. With this information, suggest improvements in the growers' pro- 
grams as to materials used, method and time of application and refine- 
ments in the machine itself that will give more effective service. 

7. Work out a complete spray schedule for an average season, with 
costs, for a 20-acre unit. 



CHAPTER VII 
PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 

Fruit varieties, with rare exceptions, do not come true from 
the seed. Thus the seeds of a Stayman Winesap apple might 
give rise to red, green, or striped, sweet or sour, large or small 
apples. Some might resemble the parent variety, but many 
of them would be worthless, with the chances slight that from 
thousands of seeds there would come a single sort that was an 
improvement over the parent. 

For this reason it is necessary to secure new plants of a 
given variety by transferring vegetative parts of that variety 
to a stock upon which these parts may grow, or by rooting the 
vegetative parts without the use of a stock, or by inducing the 
development of roots on the mother plant which may later be 
separated and used for new plants. The name given to the 
process of making the transfer depends upon the nature of the 
particular method employed and the vegetative parts used. 
Thus we have cleft grafting^ lohip grafting, shield building, 
cuttings, layerage, etc. 

It is necessary also at times to resort to one of these proc- 
esses to convert undesirable varieties to desirable kinds. Per- 
haps the orchard trees have proved untrue to name. The pur- 
chaser of Mcintosh or Jonathan may find that he has Ben 
Davis. He may graft his trees to a more desirable variety. 

Again, it has been found that large blocks of a single variety 
may prove unproductive, as indicated in the chapter on polli- 
nation, or this may be true of two mutually incompatible varie- 
ties. The grower resorts to graftage to develop trees, the 
blossoms of which will pollenize his orchard and give him a 
set of fruit. 

361 



362 



PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 



Again, a variety may be very desirable in itself, but may 
possess poor tree characters in that it may be very susceptible 
on the trunk or in the crotch at the base of the main branches 
to winter injury, materially reducing the life and fruitfulness 
of the tree. By graftage, the trunk of a hardier, more resistant 
kind may be substituted, and upon it may be built the top or 
head of the variety desired. 

New varieties may be induced to bear fruit earlier by graft- 
ing them on mature trees than by growing them from nursery 
trees. This saves a number of years in testing them to deter- 
mine their value. 

It is evident, therefore, that the fruit grower should possess 
a knowledge of a few simple and effective methods of pro- 
cedure under the circumstances outlined. If he lacks it, there 
may usually be found in fruit-growing sections a few men who 
are very skillful in the various forms of plant propagation and 
who may be engaged to do the work. 

Operations and Factors: 

1. Cleft grafting. 5. Bridge grafting. 

2. Inlay or bark grafting. 6. Propagating by cuttings. 

3. Whip grafting. 7. Propagating by layers. 

4. Shield budding. 8. Grafting preparations. 

Since growth takes place in the cambium cells beneath the 
inner bark, it is necessary in all forms of grafting and budding 
that the cambium tissues of the stock and the part grafted 
upon it be put in contact with each other. This is the funda- 
mental consideration whatever the method. 

1. Cleft Grafting. Cleft grafting is usually employed when 
it is necessary to graft a new top on a tree which is several 
years old. Even mature trees may be grafted, but the difficulty 
increases with the age of the tree and the size of the branches. 

The process of substituting an entire new top of a different 
variety is called top-ioorking. The particular method used de- 
pends upon the age of the tree and the size of the branches. 



CLEFT GRAFTING 



363 



Cleft grafting is the most common form of top-working em- 
ployed by the grower; as the name implies, it consists of mak- 
ing a cleft in the stock into which the graft or cion is inserted 
(Fig. 139). The operation is feasible upon limbs varying in 
size from those just strong 
enough to hold the cions firmly 
in place to those so large that 
the clefts or wedge-shaped open- 
ings in the branches can be 
made with diflBculty. On trees 
set in the orchard only from one 
to two or three years, the cions 
are usually placed in the trunks ; 
on older trees they are placed in 
the branches. 

The tendency of the cions 

is to grow directly upward. 

If they are inserted in lateral 

tranches, they will not assume 

the same direction as these ^' ^^^'^ 

branches but will turn and grow ' ^^^'''f'^Z '}f' 

T -r , , . . mg. (a) Cions. (d) Cleft m stock 

upward. In determmmg the ^^^^^ -^^^^^-^^ ^^^^^ 

branches to be grafted, it is cions inserted in cleft, (d) Cleft 

important to select, as far as and cion tips waxed, (e) Side view 

possible, those that may be of cion showing wedge shape of cut 

grafted near the ground. Other- Portion. (/) Mallet for making cleft 

4.1 II 1 with chisel, (g) Grafting chisel — 

ivise the new head may be very ^ , , , . ,^ 

T., r ^ ' 1 ^ot^ curved blade which prevents 

lllgh, the fruit being borne tearing of the bark. A sharp knife 

at the ends of long, polelike is also needed for shaping the ciong. 

tranches. 

Take at least two years to work over trees of considerable 
size. All grafts may be set in one year, but part of the top 
should be left to be removed later. It is not safe to cut off the 
entire tops of such trees in a single year. The trees may die 
or the cions may be forced into excessive growth, breaking 
out by their own weight or being killed in winter. Also, the 




364 



PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 



crotches and main branches, being unduly exposed, may suffer 
from winter injury. 

It is not necessary to work over every branch of appreciable 
size. Select those on which grafts, by proper pruning, will 
develop a good top. On small trees, three or four grafted 
branches, and, on larger trees, six to eight will usually suffice. 

Perform the Operation in the Spring Just as Growth Is 
Starting, Life activities promoting union and healing begin as 
the buds are opening. Plowever, the operation may be per- 
formed a few weeks earlier, or if the cions are kept dormant, a 
few weeks later. 

Kinds of Trees to Cleft Graft, Apple and pear trees may 
be cleft grafted easily. Plum and cherry trees are a little more 
difficult to graft as a rule. The bark of the sweet cherry tends 
to run in rings around the tree and must be cut ahead of the 
cleft. The wood of the peach is too soft for cleft grafting. If 
necessary to top-work the peach, it may best be done by 
budding some of the small shoots. Mature grape vines may 
also be cleft grafted. 

Procedure and Factors: 

(a) Selecting equipment. 

(6) Selecting cions. 

(c) Making the cleft. 

(d) Preparing the cions. 

(e) Inserting the cions. 

(/) Modifications of procedure. 

(g) Subsequent treatment of cions. 

(h) Cleft grafting grape vines. 

(a) Selecting Equipment, A sharp knife with a straight 
blade, a grafting chisel, a wood mallet for driving in the 
chisel to make the wedge or cleft, a pruning saw with teeth 
fine enough so that it will not tear the bark at the edges of the 
cut, and wax are the items needed in addition to the cions. A 
chisel with a curved handle to hang over the branches when not 



CLEFT GRAFTING 



365 



in use, and a mallet with a thong to slip over the wrist or a 
spur on the tree will eliminate trips to the ground to pick up 
fallen tools. All supplies may be carried in a basket equipped 
with a hook for hanging on the branches. A wood mallet is 
necessary because the chisel would break under the blows of 
an iron or steel hammer. 

(6) Selecting Cions. For cions take wood of the previous 
season^s growth. This will be the terminal growths or shoots 
from trees of the variety desired. Take them from bearing 
trees, if possible, to be sure of the variety. Use only well- 
developed buds on mature wood. The extreme tips formed late 
the previous season are usually soft w^ith poor buds and Should 
be discarded. Suckers, water sprouts, or young adventitious 
growi:hs will do if the w^ood is mature and the buds w^ell de- 
veloped. 

Store the cions in a cool, moist place where they will re- 
main dormant until used. Place them in moist sawdust, sand, 
or moss, or roll them in a moist cloth. Do not keep them 
soaked with water, as this softens the bark and may cause 
them to decay. A favorite storage place on farms has been in 
the sawdust on top of the ice pack in the ice house. Cions cut 
early may be buried in a dry sandy knoll out of doors. 

If the grafting is done while the trees are entirely dormant, 
the cions may be cut as needed. Cions that show injury from 
cold, indicated by a browning of the tissue beneath the bark, 
should not be used. 

(c) Making the Cleft. Select a smooth area on the branch 
or stock, free from knots, where the grain is straight, and saw 
off the stock just beyond this point. In placing the chisel to 
make the cleft, put it in such a position that the cions when 
inserted will be in a horizontal rather than a vertical plane. If 
the cleft is vertical, the lower cion will grow up directly into 
the one above. This of course does not apply to grafting in 
the trunk. 

Make the cleft with the chisel and mallet from 2 to 4 
inches deep, starting the cleft carefully and cutting the bark 



366 



PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 



with the knife ahead of the split or check if it does not part 
evenly. 

Reverse the chisel; insert the wedge in the center of the 
split stock so that when the handle is pressed down the cleft 
will open to receive the cions. 

(d) Preparing the Cions. Cut off a piece from the cion 




{Md. Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 140. A good selection of branches for grafting was made on this tree. 
The grafts are beginning to grow. Two or three of the remaining branches 
may be grafted the following spring ; the others will be cut off. Compare 

with Fig. 141. 

wood carrying strong buds. The common number of buds on 
the cion is three, though this may be reduced if the cion wood 
is scarce or especially valuable. Cut off the cion just above 
the top bud. 

Beginning at the base of the lower bud, with a straight, 
even stroke of the knife form a wedge with even sides and 
slightly thicker on the outside than on the side which is to be 



CLEFT GRAFTING 



367 



placed toward the center of the stock. Do not make the wedge 
too long; from 1 to 2 inches is sufficient. Make it blunt at the 
lower end, since if it is drawn to a fine point the bark may 
loosen from it when inserted in the cleft. With experience, 
two strokes of the knife will prepare the cion for insertion. 

{e) Inserting the Cions, 
Press down on the handle of 
the chisel to open the cleft, 
and slip in the cion at the 
outer edge in such a way that 
the cambium or growing tis- 
sue of the cion is in contact 
with the cambium of the 
stock. This area is just be- 
neath the inner bark and, 
since the bark on the stock 
will be thicker than that of 
the young cion^ it is best to 
tilt the cion slightly outward 
at the top to insure contact. 

Slip the cion downward 
until the lower bud is close 
to the cut surface of the 
stock. Growth is more ac- 
tive at the buds, and union 
will take place sooner than if 




{Md. Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 141. Too much of the original 
. 1 1 , ii . . , top remains in this tree. The grafta 

there is no bud at this point, ^.jj ^^^^^^ ^^^j^ ^^^.^ 

growth will be weak. Compare with 
Fig. 140. 



Since no growth may oc 
cur except at the point of 
junction of the cambium tis- 
sues of cion and stock, it at once becomes evident why the inner 
side of the wedge of the cion must be thinner than the outer side. 
If the reverse were true the cambium areas would be held apart 
and growth would be impossible The desirability of straight, 
even cuts on the ion also becomes evident in order to put the 
greatest possible areas of cambium in contact with each other. 



368 



PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 



If the stock is 2 or more inches in diameter, insert another 
cion in the same manner in the cleft on the opposite side. It is 
evident that the wedges on both cions must be of about the 
same size and design in order that both may fit well in the 
same cleft. 

Release the pressure on the chisel handle and withdraw the 
chisel. The pressure of the stock will clamp the cions firmly 
in place. Wax all cut and exposed surfaces carefully to 
prevent drying out of the wounds and the entrance of moisture, 
insects, or disease organisms. Information on waxes is given 
in this chapter under ^^Grafting Preparations.'^ 

(/) Modifications of Procedure. If the branch to be 
grafted is extra large, two clefts may be made at right angles 
to each other and four grafts inserted, in order to hasten 
healing of the wound. It may be better to resort to inlay or 
bark grafting in such circumstances. In some cases the pres- 
sure or spring of the stock may be so great as to crush the 
cions. Relieve the pressure, in part, by placing a wedge in the 
center of the stock. The cions, however, must carry enough 
pressure to hold them firmly in place. 

In grafting over a young tree only two or three years set, 
the branches of which are too small to take the cions, the 
trunk may be cut off at the desired point and one or more 
cions inserted directly into it (Fig. 142) . 

ig) Subsequent Treatment of Cions. Permit both cions to 
grow for several years (Fig. 143). Usually only one. cion 
should be left to form a permanent branch. If both are left, 
a bad fork or crotch may result. However, both cions should 
be left for a time to hasten the healing process. After the first 
year the cion which is to be removed eventually may be grad- 
ually repressed through pruning, so that it may not interfere 
with the development of the other. After a period of years it 
should be entirely removed. 

Prune the permanent graft just as would be done with any 
branches, keeping in mind that it will require some heading of 



CLEFT GRAFTING 



369 




Fig. 142. (a) Cleft grafts inserted in the trunk of a tree which had grown 
three years in the orchard, (b) The same tree as the grafts are beginning 
their second season of growth. Each shoot grew more than 4 feet. Both 
grafts should be left for the present, but all shoots should be headed back 
quite heavily, with the exception of one of the center shoots. This 
should be headed lightly to encourage development of the scaffold 

branches. 



370 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 



the central or major shoot to induce a lateral growth as near 
the ground as possible. 

If it is desirable to get some fruit quickly to test the variety, 
or for other reasons, prune as little as possible until fruit is 




(Md. Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 143. This grafted top has been growing 
three years and is making a good head. The 
upright shoot at the left should be topped 
lightly to encourage branching. 

borne. Grafts frequently bear some fruit the third season and 
occasionally the second season. 

Young grafts are particularly attractive to plant lice by 
reason of their quick, succulent growth. Special care should 
be exercised to keep them free in the early stages of their de- 
velopment. Thin out the suckers that develop around them 
during the season. 



INLAY OR BARK GRAFTING 



371 



The grafts must be given plenty of sunlight if they are to 
thrive. On large trees some branches of the parent stock must 
be left for a time, but the tree should be completely reworked 
as soon as possible and all surplus branches removed. 

Inspect the grafts frequently during the first season to 
make certain that all cut surfaces remain coated with wax. 
Another coating at the beginning of the second season is ad- 
visable in case of large stocks. 

(h) Cleft Grafting Grape Vines. Grape vines already es- 
tablished in the vineyard may be cleft grafted to other varie- 
ties. Do the work in the spring before the sap has begun to 
move upward, or if this is not possible, wait until the first 
flush of sap is over. Keep the cions dormant until used. 

Shovel away the soil about the base of the trunk and saw 
the trunk off about 2 inches below ground level. Since the 
grape trunk will not split readily, saw a slot with a fine hack- 
saw, about 1% inches deep, and pry it apart to receive the 
cion. 

Prepare the cion just as for the tree fruits, and insert in 
the same manner. If the size of the stock permits, insert two 
cions. Tie with a few turns of soft strong twine. Do not 
cover the union with wax or other preparation as air seems 
essential to healing. 

Mound the soil up loosely about the cion, leaving one or 
two buds exposed. If the mound becomes hard, or if it forms 
in clods, remove it and hill over again as often as may be neces- 
sary to keep a loose, open covering permitting the entrance of 
air and the escape of moisture from the wound. 

Keep suckers off the stock. Unless roots are desired on the 
cion, it will be necessary to hoe the soil away each year for 
two or three years and remove with a close clean cut any 
roots that may have formed on the cion below ground. 

Vines grafted in this manner should fruit extensively the 
third season. 

2. Inlay or Bark Grafting. For working over trees the 
branches of which are of considerable size, inlay or bark 



372 



PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 



grafting is more easily performed than cleft grafting, The 
operation is performed at the same time of year as cleft 
grafting. 

Equipment, A sharp knife, saw, tack hammer, brads or 
wire nails (No. 20, %-inch) , and grafting wax are necessary. 

Preparing the Stock, Select the branches in the same man- 
ner as for cleft grafting. It is not so necessary that the stock 

be free from knots as no cleft 
is made in it, but smooth places 
should be available on the bark 
(Fig. 144). 

Preparing the Cion, Take 
cion wood in the same manner 
as for cleft grafting, preferably 
of large size so long as the buds 
are good. Cut in pieces, carry- 
ing three or four buds and 
about 4 inches long. At about 
the middle of the cion make an 
abrupt cut to the center on one 
side, turn the blade, and cut 
straight to the lower end. This 
will remove a section of the cion 
and leave a cut surface that is 
even and smooth. Make the cut 
on the side opposite the lower 
bud so that the bud may be re- 
tained and may function when 
the cion is in place. 
Inserting the Cion, Place the cut surface of the cion lightly 
against the bark of the stock where the union is to be made, 
and trace the outline of the cion with the knife point. Re- 
move the cion and take out the corresponding piece of bark on 
the stock. If growth is just beginning, the piece will peel out 
readily, leaving the growth or cambium cells exposed. If the 
inner bark adheres, remove it carefully. 




{N, r. state College of Agr.) 

Fig. 144. Inlay or bark grafting. 
(1) Cions prepared for attach- 
ment to the stock. (2) Stock 
prepared for cions. (3) Cions 
fastened in place with small nails. 
(4) All exposed parts waxed. 



WHIP GRAFTING 



373 



Fit the cut surface of the cion against the exposed surface 
of the stock, and draw them together tightly by driving two 
nails carefully through the cion into the stock. Wax all cut 
and exposed surfaces carefully. 

Insert two or more cions, depending upon the size of the 
stock. The more cions that are used, the quicker the healing 
process will be completed. Very large branches or trunks may 
be grafted, though the grafts are more likely to break out at 
some future time. 

Subsequent treatment of cions is the same as in cleft 
grafting. 

3. Whip Grafting. Whip grafting, or tongue grafting, as 
it is sometimes called, is used for parts too small to be cleft 
grafted. 

The nurseryman uses it to establish known varieties on 
seedling roots. The fruit grower uses it to graft the trunks 
of small trees either after planting or later, and to change the 
tops of young trees by working over the branches to the 
variety desired. To use on trees, perform the operation just 
as growth is about to start in the spring, continuing if necessary 
for ten days or two weeks after growth has begun, provided 
that the cions are held in a dormant condition. 

Equipment. A sharp knife with a thin straight blade is an 
essential. To this add grafting wax and waxed cord prepared 
as indicated under '^Grafting Preparations.'' 

Preparing the Stock. Select a smooth, clear place on the 
trunk or branch and sever the part with a clean, drawing 
motion of the knife, exposing a sloping surface 1 to 2 inches 
long (Fig. 145). Start the knife just above the center and 
cut toward the center and through it, working the knife down- 
ward against the grain to prevent splitting and making an in- 
cision about 1% inches deep. This action prepares the tongue. 

Preparing the Cion. Take the cion, selected and kept as 
for cleft grafting, and sever a piece bearing a number of buds 
and usually 4 to 6 inches long. Make a long, even sloping cut 
just as in case of the stock, and complete the tongue in the 



374 



PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 




{N, r. state College of Agr.) 



Fig. 145. Whip grafting. (1) Cion and stock 
prepared for union by diagonal cuts. (2) The 
tongue, made by starting the cut above the 
center. (3) Cion and stock united, with cam- 
bium layers in contact on one side. (4) Waxed 
string aids in holding cion and stock firmly 
in place. (5) All exposed surfaces thoroughly 
waxed. 



WHIP GRAFTING 



375 



same manner. Make the tongue on the proper end of the cion 
so that when the cion is in place the buds will grow away from 
rather than toward the stock. 

Uniting Stock and Cion, Slip the tongue of the cion inside 
the tongue of the stock until the cion is firmly in place. Disre- 
gard one side of the cut surface of the cion, but make certain 
that the cambium of the other side is in contact with the cam- 
bium of the stock. It is seldom that cion and stock will be of 
the same size. In the effort to match up both sides, there is 
danger of missing cambium contact altogether; it is therefore 
better to confine attention to but one margin of the cut sur- 
faces. 

When the cion is in place, wind the place of union with 
waxed string without tying and without attempting to cover the 
entire union with cord. Wax all cut surfaces thoroughly, 
exercising care not to disturb the cion in the slightest degree. 

Subsequent Treatment, After union and growth take place, 
cut the waxed cord to prevent girdling, unless the cord pulls 
apart itself. 

Several or all of the buds on the cion may grow. Rub or 
cut off those that are not desired and train the top or branch 
in the usual manner. 

Whip Grafting in the Nursery, As indicated in Chap- 
ter III, '^Establishing the Orchard,^' the nurseryman employs 
whip grafting on the roots to establish the desired variety on 
the roots of the seedling. Whole roots or pieces of roots are 
used as stock. The operation is usually performed in Febru- 
ary, following the same procedure as in grafting parts above 
ground. The union is bound with waxed cord, but is not cov- 
ered with wax. The completed grafts are stored in bundles 
of 25 or 50 in moist sand in a cool cellar until spring. 

A development of healing tissue about the union, termed a 
callus, takes place in the meantime. The grafts are planted 
about 6 inches apart in the nursery row and deeply enough so 
that only the upper bud appears above ground. One shoot is 
permitted to grow to form the tree. At the end of the season 



376 



PROPAGATING FRXnT PLANTS 



it is a one-year-old whip and may be sold as such, or it may 
be headed back to develop side branches and retained another 
year in the nursery row, being sold as a two-year-old tree. 




{Md. Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 146. Whip grafting young orchard trees, (a) Whip grafts after one 
season's growth, {b) A, the waxed string was not removed at the proper 
time resulting in a weak union and partial girdling. B and C, good 
unions. The side branches above B hasten the healing process. 

Own rooted trees are trees that have been grafted onto 
pieces of roots, using an unusually long cion. The graft is set 
deeply enough so that roots develop from the lower buds of 



SHIELD BUDDING 



377 



the cion. When the tree is taken up from the nursery, the 
seedling root piece is removed and the tree is thus on its own 
roots. 

Grapes are also bench grafted or tongue grafted in the dor- 
mant season. 

4. Shield Budding. On young trees and those with small 
branches, budding is very useful in changing the variety. It is 
employed by the nurseryman to establish the desired variety 
on seedling stock. It is employed by the fruit grower to work 
over young trees, on either the trunk or the branches. The 
essential considerations are the same as in graftage, except 
that a single bud is substituted for the cion. The most common 
form is shield budding, taking its name from the shape of the 
bit of bark cut off with the bud. 

Time of Performing Operation. The bark on normal fruit 
trees peels or slips in late summer. The trees are then ready to 
bud. The actual time varies with the fruit, the season, and 
the section. Ordinarily it occurs in August or early Sep- 
tember. 

Selecting the Buds. Take well-developed buds from the 
terminal growths of the current season on trees of the desired 
variety. Shoots so taken are termed bud sticks. Clip off the 
leaves immediately to stop evaporation, but allow part of the 
leaf stalks to remain attached to the buds to serve as handles 
in manipulating them (Fig. 147) . Use the bud sticks at once 
or, if that is impossible, put them in a cool, moist place. 

Top-Working by Budding. Buds may be inserted in the 
trunk if the tree is small. The top will be formed at some point 
above the insertion of the bud, and it is well to keep this in 
mind in selecting the place on the stock. 

It is more common practice to bud the main branches, 
usually on the upper side not far from the point of union with 
the trunk, at the close of the first season^s growth in the 
orchard (Fig. 148). 

Select a smooth place on the stock and make a T-shaped 
slit through the bark (Fig. 149) . If the bark is in good condi- 



378 



PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 



tion to work, the flaps will loosen and turn up on the points. 
Work the corners loose carefully. 

Inserting the Bud. With a thin-bladed knife, cut a bud 




(Md. Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 147. Bud sticks. (.4) 
Before preparation. (B) 
Ready for the budding proc- 
ess. 




(Md, Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 148. This Stayman Winesap 
apple tree was budded in the scaf- 
fold branches at A after one sea- 
son's growth in the orchard. One 
year's growth has been made by 
the buds. 



from the bud stick with a shield-shaped piece of bark and a 
very thin layer of wood under it. Slip the bud by means of 
the leaf stalk handle under the loose flaps on the stock and 
shove it into position. jMake certain that the bud goes in in 



SHIELD BUDDING 



379 



such a direction that it may grow outward or upward, and 
push it in far enough so that the bark of the stock completely 
envelops it. 

The cambium tissues are thus together as in graftage. Tie 
the bud securely above and below with raffia. (Fine, soft cord 
or elastic will do.) 

Subsequent Treatment, In- 
spect the bud in about two 
weeks. If union has taken 
place, cut the raffia on the 
side away from the bud to pre- 
vent girdling. If the union has 
failed, there may still be time 
to repeat the operation. If 
notj whip grafting may be em- 
ployed the following spring. 

The bud will remain dor- 
mant until the following 
spring. At that time cut off 
the stock above the bud. The 
bud will push out quickly into 
a vigorous shoot which may be 
trained to the desired form. 

Top-Working Peach Trees, 
Peach trees in the orchard 
may best be worked over by 
budding. The wood of the 
peach is too soft and splits too 
readily to graft well. Cut back 
the top to force the develop- 
ment of new shoots near the base of the main branches. Bud 
these shoots in late summer. 

Budding Nursery Trees, The nurseryman may use shield 
budding on his seedling stocks in late summer instead of whip 
grafting them (Fig. 150). In fact, the former is the more 
common practice at the present time and is the sole practice 




{N. J. Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 149. Shield budding, (a) 
Bud stick, method of holding stick 
and knife to cut bud shown below. 
(b) The incision on the stock, 
(c and d) Views of the bud. id) At 
right shows wood removed, not 
necessary in ordinary budding of 
fruit trees, (e) The bud inserted. 
(/) The bud tied in place with 
raffia. 



380 



PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 



for peaches. The procedure is the same as outlined hereto- 
fore, except that the nurseryman buds the stock close to the 
ground. Trees showing a decided crook at ground level have 
been budded. The bud remains dormant until the following 
spring, when the stock is cut off above the bud. 

In southern sections, budding of the peach may be done in 
June and is called June budding. The buds start growth at 
^ once, and the trees that de- 




velop from them are known 
as June buds. In such case, 
the stock above the bud is 
usually cut off a portion at 
a time, so as not to force 
the shoot from the bud too 
rapidly. 

5. Bridge Grafting. Trees 
are frequently girdled by 
mice or rabbits. Injuries to 
the trunk occur from im- 
plements or disease. These 
may cause the death of the 
trees, or seriously retard 
their development. If the 
trees are very young, it may 



(Md. Exp, sta.) be wiser to put new trees in 
Fig. 150. Budding seedling trees in their places than to attempt 
the nursery. to save them. \ 

Injury from mice and 
rabbits often occurs on trees of such a size and age that their 
death would mean a considerable loss. If such injuries are 
discovered in time and if they are not too extensive, the trees 
may be saved by bridge grafting. This operation is, as its 
name implies, a bridging of the gap between top and roots so 
that life functions and processes may go on. It is thus not 
a method of propagation, but is included here with other forms 
of grafting. 



BRIDGE GRAFTING 381 

If the bark has been eaten from the roots for a considerable 
distance underground, as is sometimes done by the pine mouse, 
}t will be difficult or impossible to perform the operation and 
save the tree. If the injury begins at, or a little below, ground 
l€vel and extends up the trunk for greater or less distances, 
the operation is entirely feasible. It becomes more difficult as 
the area injured increases in width. 

Seedling trees or nursery trees are sometimes set close to 
the injured trees and the tops grafted in above the wound. 
Watersprouts or suckers below the wound are also grafted in to 
bridge the gap. In trees set only two or three years these 
sprouts may be used to form a new top, provided that they 
spring from a point above that at which the tree was budded 
in the nursery. 

Time of Performing Operation, Early spring following the 
injury, beginning when the buds are swelling and for two or 
three weeks thereafter is the best time to do the work. Go 
over the orchard well in advance carefully to determine the 
trees that need attention, so that the cions may be cut and 
kept dormant and fresh until used. Failures often result from 
doing the work too early or too late in the season. 

Equipment. A sharp knife, tack hammer, brads % to 1 
inch long (No. 18) , and some form of grafting wax are needed. 
In addition, a light wood wedge to aid in bending the cions 
will prove useful. 

Preparing the Cions. Use strong cions of the previous sea- 
son's growth that have matured well. Mature watersprouts or 
suckers from hardy varieties are good. Do not use weak 
shoots. If good one-year cions cannot be found, substitute 
strong two-year growths. On large trees use the largest ma- 
ture cions that it is possible to secure. For grafting on the 
roots, a cion with a curve at the base will be useful. 

Determine the width of the space to be bridged (Fig. 151). 
Make the cions from 3 to 4 inches longer than this space. At 
about 2 inches from each end of the cion, make a long, sloping 
cut to the heart or center and then to the end with edges 



382 



PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 



parallel. The cuts on both ends must be in the same plane so 
that both may fit evenly against the stock when the cion is in 
place. 

Preparing the Stock. Cut slits in the healthy bark of the 
stock at the upper and lower edges of the wound to fit the cion. 

Lay the cion against the bark 
to get the correct measurements. 
Take out the bark clean, expos- 
ing the cambium tissue beneath. 
The bark will separate readily on 
a warm day when growth is 
starting. If any of the bark ad- 
heres to the stock, take it off 
carefully with the knife, disturb- 
ing the cambium as little as pos- 
sible. ' 

Inserting the Cions. Place 
one end of the cion in the lower 
groove with the cut surfaces to- 
gether. Fasten it in place by 
driving one or more brads care- 
fully through it into the stock. 
Bend the center of the cion over 
a wedge about an inch in thick- 
ness to give a spring or bow that 
drawn into place by small wire j^^^p ^j^^ ^j^j^ pj^^.^ ^j^^ 

nails (1-inch, No. 18). (4) The ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^j^^ ^j^^ 

to permit enlargement in diam- 
eter of the cion. Press the cion 
in the groove at the top and nail 
fast. Remove the wedge. 
Place cions about 2 inches apart about the tree over the 
girdled area. Wax the ends carefully on the under as well as 
outer surfaces where exposed. A coating of wax on the girdled 
portion will discourage borers and keep the margins of the 
wound from drying out. 




(IV. r. state College of Agr.) 

Fig. 151. Bridge Grafting. (1) 
Cions ready for nailing. (2) A 
natural crook at the base of the 
cion works to advantage in graft- 
ing on a root. (3) The cions are 



cion is less likely to break away at 
the top if a wedge is used to give 
somewhat of a bow. (5) Wax all 
cut surfaces after the cions are set. 



PROPAGATING BY CUTTINGS 



383 



Subsequent Treatment. Buds may start from the cions. 
Rub them off so that cions serve only as carriers. If some of 
the cions fail, replace them the following spring. The cions 
will gradually increase in diameter until they have closed the 
spaces between them. 

Modifications of tine 
Operation, Some growers 
merely loosen the bark of 
the stock and slip the cions 
under it, fastening them in 
place. This is more diffi- 
cult to do than to remove 
a section of bark entirely 
and gives no better results. 

6. Propagating by Cut- 
tings. The grape, goose- 
berry, currant, and blue- 
berry may be propagated 
from cuttings. Take 8- to 
10-inch hardwood cuttings 
of the grape, gooseberry, 
and currant in the fall, from 
vigorous mature wood of 
the current season^s growi:h 
(Fig. 153). These cuttings 
may either be set in the 
nursery row, covered with 
a mulch to prevent freezing 
and thawing, or placed in 

bundles and buried in sandy knolls with the bottom end up. 
The butts of the cuttings receive the heat from the late fall 
and early spring sun, which induces the formation of a callus 
or coating of tissue over them. The cuttings may also be 
stored in sand in a cool cellar and kept just moist enough 
to prevent drying out. Cuttings also may be made in early 




(U. JS. D. A.) 

Fig. 152. A bridge graft after the 
cions had grown two years. 



384 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 

spring, but they will not give as high a percentage of rooted 
plants. 

In the spring place the cuttings 3 to 6 inches apart in the 
nursery row, leaving not more than two buds above ground. 
They will be ready for removal to the field at the end of one or 
two years. If they are kept in the nursery for two years, it is 
good practice to transplant them at the beginning of the second 




{Md. Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 153. (A) Straight hardwood cuttings of grape, gooseberry, and cur- 
rant. (B) Mallet and heel cuttings of grape. (C) Root cuttings of black- 
berry. (D) Tip layer of blackcap raspberry. 

season. This gives the plants a close, compact root system that 
will be little affected by removal to the field. 

As a rule, roots arise most readily from a node, or bud. In 
preparing cuttings make the lower cut just belov/ a bud. Cut 
off the upper end far enough above the bud to prevent drying 
out. The mallet and heel cuttings as shown in Fig. 153B are 
also used for propagating some varieties of grapes which do not 
root readily from straight cuttings. 



PROPAGATING BY CUTTINGS 



385 



Root cuttings (Fig. 153C) are employed in propagating 
some varieties of blackberries and purple raspberries which do 
not sucker freely. In the fall, cut off pieces of the roots about 

3 to 5 inches long and store in sand until spring, as previously 
indicated. The root cuttings develop both tops and roots from 
adventitious buds after the cuttings have been planted. 

Blueberries may be propagated 
by softwood cuttings which should 
be taken in August. Cuttings are 
made about 4 inches long, and all 
the leaves except the upper two are 
removed (Fig. 154). 

Either a solar or box frame is a 
satisfactory propagating case. The 
former operates on the principle of 
supplying bottom heat, which is a 
decided advantage, but it is doubtful 
whether this will compensate for the 
extra cost of construction. Both 
types hold movable trays which are 

4 inches deep and have a hardware 
cloth bottom. Further information 
may be obtained from the Michigan 
Experiment Station. 

German peat moss is the most 
satisfactory rooting medium. Growth- 
promoting substances are believed to placement in the cutting bed. 
increase initial root development. 

The cuttings are placed in a slanting position^ in a 4-inch 
layer of loose but firm damp moss. They are watered and 
the frame is covered with a burlap shading which is held 
6 inches from the glass. Very little watering is neces- 
sary to keep the cuttings quite moist. Ventilation is 
very gradual and is practiced only after rooting has taken 
place. 

In the fall the plants should be hardened off so that they 




(Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 154. A softwood blue- 
berry cutting ready for 



386 



PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 



will drop their leaves. It is well to store the tray in a cool 
cellar for the winter. The plants may be given a permanent 
position in the field in the spring. 

7. Propagating by Layers. Plants which do not propagate 
readily by means of cuttings may sometimes be increased 
readily by layerage. Layerage consists of the formation of 
roots from a portion of the stem, but differs from cuttings in 
that the roots and stems of the new plant are formed while it is 
still attached to the old plant. The black raspberry cane bends 
over as it attains full length, and the tip, if covered with 
earth, roots readily and forms a new plant at that point 
(Fig. 153D). 

Where the canes are long and can be laid over on the 
ground, as in the grape, the covering of the nodes at various 
points on the cane results in the production oi roots at the 
nodes. Several new plants are thus secured from one cane. 
The new plants may be severed from the parent just as soon 
as the roots are well formed. This is usually done the follow- 
ing spring when the plants are put in the field or nursery row. 
Leave a portion of the old cane attached to each root to facili- 
tate handling. New canes develop from the buds which form 
at the crown of the new plant. 

Mound layerage is another method in addition to the use of 
cuttings for propagating the gooseberry; it is also used with 
the quince and Paradise apple. Cutting back the plants close 
to the ground in the spring, leaving a few buds on each stem, 
results in the production of vigorous new shoots. In . June 
these shoots are mounded up with earth high enough to cover 
the lower buds, the soil being worked in well about them. 
Roots develop from the nodes. If sufficient growth has been 
made by the following fall, the earth may be removed and the 
new plants cut off and stored until spring, or they may be 
planted in the field at once in southern sections. 

In the North, leave the plants attached until spring before 
severing them. It may be necessary to leave them attached 
through a second season. 



GRAFTING PREPARATIONS 



387 



The process may be repeated on the old plants from time 
to time. 

8. Grafting Preparations. Several kinds of grafting wax 
are used in covering the grafts. Most of these waxes soften 
with heat, the soft wax becoming pliable at the temperature 
of the hand. Many formulas substitute ounces or pounds for 
parts, depending on the quantity to be made. 

Formula for Soft Wax 

Resin (finely broken) 4 parts 

Beeswax 2 parts 

Tallow 1 part 

Melt the tallow first, then add beeswax, and when this is 
melted, add the resin. Boil slowly for 30 minutes with occa- 
sional stirring; then pour the melted wax into cold water. 
Grease the hands, remove the wax, and work it by pulling it 
until it becomes straw colored and smooth grained. Twist in 
skeins and wrap in oiled paper. It may be kept for long 
periods. Grease the hands before applying the wax. 

A brush wax, which does away with the inconvenience of 
handling the sticky hand wax, is made as follows: 

Brush Wax 



Beeswax 1 part 

Resin 5 parts 

Raw linseed oil part 

Lampblack or powdered charcoal Vo part 



Melt the beeswax, add and melt the resin, then add the 
linseed oil. Remove the mixture from the fire and stir in the 
lampblack a little at a time, to avoid boiling over. 

As soon as cooking is completed, the wax may be partially 
cooled to a point where it flows slowly but easily and can then 
be used at once. The orchardist should make up a supply in 
advance, however, pouring the wax into shallow pans and 



388 



PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 



allowing it to cool and harden. It is necessary to heat this mix- 
ture again for use. Apply with a brush or ladle. 

Alcoholic wax is used in cold weather in order to avoid 
heating the wax in the field. 

Alcoholic Wax 

Resin 16 parts 

Tallow 1 part 

Wood alcohol ; . 8 parts 

Melt the tallow, then add the pulverized resin and heat 
until entirely melted. Remove from the fire and stir until 
partially cooled, then gradually add the alcohol until the 
cooled mass has the consistency of paint. The wax will remain 
in this form until ready for use if placed in containers such as 
fruit jars and sealed to prevent evaporation. 

Waxed String and Bandages, Immerse a ball of No. 18 
knitting cotton in the hot, soft wax for about 5 minutes. Turn 
the ball frequently to insure complete saturation of the string. 
Remove the ball, suspend on a wire or stick, and turn it over 
several times while cooling to prevent the hot wax from settling 
in the lower side of the ball. Wrap in oiled paper until ready 
for use. Waxed bandages of muslin or cheesecloth may be 
prepared in the same manner. 

GENERAL INFORMATION 

Forms of grafting other than those described in this chapter may occa- 
sionally be useful. A form that is sometimes of value is the supporting 
of poor crotches through grafting cross-shoots from other branches 
at appropriate points on the branches. In such a case one end of the 
graft is already attached, and the other may be inlaid on the branch 
in need of support. The essential feature is to bring the cambium 
tissues in contact and to hold them there until union has taken place. 
The branches may need to be kept from spreading by tying or wiring 
until the graft has united. Small soft shoots from opposite branches 
may be twisted together and tied to serve the same purpose. They 
will soon grow together. 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 



389 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 

1. Visit a nursery during February. Inspect the seedlings used for 
propagation. Note differences in size, length of root, and other charac- 
ters of the seedlings. 

Inspect cions used, and watch carefully the operation of root grafting. 

2. Visit a nursery in August or early September. Watch the opera- 
tion of shield budding. Inspect bud sticks and mote especially the 
apparent vitality of the buds. 

Are buds taken from bearing trees? 

What precautions are taken to keep varieties from becoming mixed 
in the nursery rows? 

Inspect root-grafted and shield-budded trees that have grown for a 
season in the nursery. 

Note varietal differences in rate of growth and size. 

Secure from the nurseryman information regarding the stocks used 
for the various fruits and the source from which they are obtained. 

3. In late September, inspect shield-budded trees again. Note that 
the buds have set and the raffia has been cut. Why? Have the buda 
started to grow? What proportion of buds have ^^taken"? Does the 
proportion vary for the different fruits? 

What proportion of budded trees make salable trees of first grade? 

4. Visit some growers who have employed cleft grafting and whip 
grafting to work over trees. Under what conditions is each method 
employed? Note the distribution of the grafts through the trees. How 
long before the grafts begin to bear commercial crops? 

5. Inspect some trees that have been bridge grafted, and note the pro- 
cedure in detail. What proportion of the trees have lived and grown? 
What proportion of the grafts that were set? Are the bridge-grafted 
trees smaller in size than those not bridge grafted? 

Find out from the fruit grower the time and expense involved in 
doing the work, and ask him for an estimate of the value of the trees 
that he has saved. 

6. Perform, first in the laboratory and then on outdoor specimens, as 
many as possible of the operations described in this chapter. Prune 
and care for the grafts on the outdoor trees for a series of years. 

7. Make some of the grafting preparations, including soft wax, and 
prepare the waxed cord. 



/ 



CHAPTER VIII 
POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING 

In many orchards the lack of proper pollination and fer- 
tilization of the blossoms results in poor crops of fruit. The 
blossoms of many varieties of fruit will not '^set'' with their own 
pollen. With such varieties even though weather conditions 
are satisfactory, poor crops of fruit will result unless provi- 
sions are made for cross-pollination. 

In some of the older fruit sections where several varieties 
were often planted in the same orchard, little trouble has ever 
been experienced with the pollination problem, but in the 
newer and more recent plantings in the Southern and Western 
state-s, where solid blocks of one variety have often been 
planted, lack of proper pollination has frequently been one of 
the chief causes of poor yields. 

Factors and Operations: 

1. How pollination and fertilization take place. 

2. Self-fruitful and self-unfruitful tree fruits. 

3. Determining need for cross-pollination. 

4. Reviewing the case, 

5. Using bees in cross-pollination. 

6. Treatment of established orchards in need of cross-pollina- 

tion. 

1. How Pollination and Fertilization Take Place. The 

blossoms of the tree fruits — apples, apricots, peaches, pears, 
plums, cherries, and quinces — considered in this book are her- 
maphroditic, that is, both stamens and pistils are present in 
the same flower. The calyx, composed of sepals, and the 
corolla, composed of the petals, are also present. The pistil 

390 



HOW POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION TAKE PLACE 



CD 



S 1; O 



O 

m 
O 



$-4 
P4 



S O .. 
4j '-^ 0 CD 

S o 




392 POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING 



(female organ) consists of a stigma, style, and ovary, and the 
stamens (male organs) are made up of filaments and anthers 
(Fig. 155). 



y-Germinating Pollen 



Connective 



Pollen Sac 



Three 
Antipodal Cells 

Polar Nuclei - ~ 

Inner 
Integument 

Outer I 
Integument ' 

Nucellus-- 

Egg Cell- 

Two Synergids 



Anther]. 

^Stamen 

Filament 




^Pistil 



- 'Micropyle 
Funiculus 

- - Base of 
Perianth. 



""^ Nectary 
^-Receptacle 



Pig. 156. Diagrammatic lengthwise section of a flower illustrating flower 
parts and pollen tube growth, resulting in fertilization of the egg cell 
and a set of fruit (redrawn jrom Holman and Rohhins.) 



The arrangement; number and structure of the different 
flower parts vary with the different fruits. For instance, in 



HOW POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION TAKE PLACE 393 



the cherry and peach only one stigma is present in each blos- 
som, whereas five are found in the apple and pear. 

By pollination is meant the transfer of pollen from the 
anthers of the stamens to the stigmas of the pistils. In tree 
fruits, when the stigmas are pollinated with pollen from the 
same flower or from flowers of the same variety, the process is 
called self-pollination; when the pollen is transferred from the 




(Md. Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 157. Apple blossoms covered with paper 
bags in pollination experiments. 



stamens of a different variety, cross-pollination is said to have 
occurred. 

Pollination is generally followed rather quickly by ger- 
mination of the pollen grain (Fig. 156) . Water and possibly 
nutrients are absorbed from the surface of the stigma, the 
grain swells, and a tube is forced out. The pollen tube grows 
down through the style, enters the ovule, or unfertilized seed, 
penetrates to the embryo sac, and discharges two male germs 
or gametes. One of the male gametes fuses with the egg cell 



394 



POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING 



(female gamete), and fertilization is said to have taken place. 
As soon as fertilization of the egg cell occurs, the embryo, 
ovary, and other adjoining tissues begin to develop, an increase 
in size occurs, and the blossom appears to have ^^set." If 
pollination and fertilization do not occur, the blossoms soon 
turn yellow, wither, and drop, either at the time the petals fall 

or shortly thereafter. 

Although pollination and 
fertilization are necessary 
for fruit setting, this does 
not mean that all blossoms 
which are fertilized develop 
into fruits. Owing to com- 
petition for water and nu- 
trients, many of the bios-" 
soms fall. Some drop at the 
time of petal fall, some two 
or three weeks later, and 
some at the time of the 
'^June drop/' After fertiliza- 
tion, those blossoms which 
have the most seeds and 
which are borne on the 
most vigorous spurs, so 
that more water, nitrates, 
and elaborated foods are available, are the ones most likely 
to set. 

2. Self-Fruitful and Self-Unfruitful Tree Fruits. Many 
varieties of apples, pears, cherries, and plums will not set fruit 
if the blossoms are pollinated with their own pollen, or with 
pollen taken from another tree of the same variety. Such 
varieties are said to be self-unfruitful. If the pollen of such 
varieties is viable, that is, capable of germination, and the egg 
cells are normal, the varieties are said to be self -incompatible 
also. When varieties do set fruit with their own pollen they 
are said to be self-fruitful and self-compatible. The term self' 
fertile is used if fruits with viable seeds are produced, following 




{Md, Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 158. By inclosing trees at blos- 
soming time under muslin or cheese 
cloth tents to exclude insects, studies 
in cross and self-fruitfulness can be 
made. 



DETERMINING NEED OF CROSS-POLLINATION 395 



self-pollination, whereas the term self-sterile is employed if no 
viable seeds are produced when self-pollination occurs. 

It can thus be seen that a variety may be both self-fruitful 
and self-fertile, or self-fruitful and self-sterile. Sometimes 
two varieties are found neither of which will fertilize the other. 
These are called intersterile. 

When the above facts are known, it is apparent that if 
certain self-unfruitful and intersterile varieties are planted in 
large blocks, and in a section where there are no nearby or- 
chards of other varieties, such varieties will bear practically 
no fruit, even though they may bloom profusely. 

3. Determining Need of Cross-Pollination. 

(a) Apples. 

(6) Pears. 

(c) Plums. 

(d) Cherries. 

(e) Peaches and apricots. 

(/) Quinces. : 

(a) Apples, The following apple varieties appear to be 
self-unfruitful in most states where studies have been made, 
and should not be planted alone in solid blocks: 



Group I 



Akin 

Arkansas Black 

Arkansas (Mammoth Black 

Twig) 
Cortland 
Delicious 
Golden Delicious 
King David 
Mcintosh 
Northern Spy- 
Ohio Nonpareil 
Opalescent 
Red June 
Eed Spy 

Rhode Island Greening 



Roxbury Russet 
Scarlet Pippin 
Stark 
Starking 

Stayman Winesap 
Summer Rambo 
Sweet Delicious 
Tompkins King 
Twenty Ounce 
White Pearmain 
Williams 
Winesap 
Winter Banana 
Wolf River 
Yellow Bellflower 



396 



POLLIXATIOX AXD FRUIT SETTING 



The following apple varieties have been reported by several 
investigators to be at least partly self-fruitful: 



Northwestern Greening 

With some the varieties in Group II a sufficient set has 
been secured in some orchards where the blossoms have been 
enclosed in bags to give a commercial crop of fruit. Field 
observations of large plantings of certain of these varieties also 
indicate that good crops will result from self-pollination if 
other conditions are satisfactory. This seems to be especially 
true of such varieties as Baldwin, Ben Davis, Grimes Golden, 
Oldenburg, Wealthy, Rome, Yellow Transparent, Yellow New- 
town, and York Imperial. However, even with these varieties, 
better crops are generally secured where cross-pollination takes 
place. This is especially noticeable in cold, cloudy seasons 
unfavorable for pollination purposes. 

Since cold, cloudy, and damp weather often occurs in many 
fruit sections, at least during part of the blossoming season, 
and since the set of fruit is often light in such years, with re- 
sultant high fruit prices, it is evident how important it may be 
to have additional pollenizers in the orchard to assist in secur- 
ing a larger set of fruit. 

As a rule, the pollen of one variety of apple will fertilize 
the blossom of another variety, provided that the blossoming 
periods of the two varieties overlap so as to make an abun- 



Group II 



Baldwin 

Ben Davis 

Cox Orange 

Early Harvest 

Esopus (Spitzenburg) 

Gano 

Gravenstein 
Grimes 
Jonathan 
Maiden Blush 
Milton 



Oldenburg (Duchess) 
Red Astra chan 
Red Oldenburg 
Red Gravenstein 
Red Rome 
Rome Beauty 
Wagener 
Wealthy 

Yellow Newtown 
Yellow Transparent 
York Imperial 



DETERMINING NEED OF CROSS-POLLINATION 397 



dance of pollen available at the proper time. This is not true, 
however, of a few varieties. Certain of the Winesap group of 
apples, such as Stayman Winesap, Arkansas (Mammoth Black 
Twig) , and Winesap, are intersterile for all practical purposes. 
These varieties are thus not only self-unfruitful, but cross- 
unfruitful also, and it is necessary to plant other varieties with 
them such as Delicious, Jonathan, Grimes Golden, or Yellow 
Transparent, if satisfactory crops are to be had. 

Although the pollen of the Grimes Golden is usually excel- 
lent to use as a pollenizer, still, when it is applied to Arkansas 
(Mammoth Black Twig) pistils, practically no fruit results. 
Growers should consult their experiment-station officials and 
secure the latest information relative to the cross-compatibility 
of the varieties which they wish to plant. 

Poor Pollenizers. The results of experiments in various 
parts of the country indicate that certain varieties make very 
poor pollenizers. Stayman Winesap, Arkansas, and Winesap 
pollen appears to be defective and germinates very poorly un- 
der controlled conditions. As a result, these varieties should 
not be relied upon to fertilize any of the other varieties. Like- 
wise the pollen of Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Graven- 
stein, Ohio Nonpareil, and Nero usually germinates poorly and 
causes poor sets of fruit when used on other varieties. Fruit 
growers should thus avoid these varieties when selecting a 
pollenizer. 

Good Pollenizers, Some varieties seem to be unusually 
good pollenizers and generally cause excellent sets of fruit. 
In this group are found: 

Cortland Red June 
Delicious Rome Beauty 
Golden Delicious Steele Red 
Grimes Golden (except for the Wagener 
Arkansas variety) Wealthy- 
Jonathan Winter Banana 
Mcintosh Yellow Transparent 
Northern Spy York Imperial 



398 POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING 



(6) Pears, Many Varieties of Pears Set Better Crops if 
Pollinated with Other Varieties. In the Eastern sections of the 
United States, experiments and field observations indicate that 
the following varieties are either entirely self-unfruitful, or 
they are self-unfruitful to such a degree that satisfactory crops 
will not be produced unless they are pollinated with other 
varieties : 

Anjou Columbia Mount Vernon 

Boussock Easter Beurre Sheldon 

Clairgeau Howell Superfin 

Clapp's Favorite Lawrence Winter Nelis 

Kieffer 

In addition to the above varieties, the following varieties 
will set much better crops if cross-pollinated, although fair 
crops are occasionally produced with their own pollen: 

Bartlett Gorham 

Buerre Bosc Phelps 

Cayuga Souvenir du Congress 

Ewart 

The following varieties set fair crops with their own pollen 
but no doubt would be benefited by cross-pollination: 

Buffum Manning 
Duchess d'Angouleme Seckel 
Flemish Beauty Tyson 
LeConte 

So far as is known, practically all varieties of pears which 
bloom at the same time will cross successfully with each other. 

(c) Plums, By far the largest percentage of Japanese 
plums {Prunus salicina) studied in this country are self- 
unfruitful and thus should not be planted in solid blocks. The 
following varieties are included in this list: 

Abundance El Dorado Ogon 

Apex Engre Prize 

Burbank Formosa Satsuma 

Chabot Gaviota Sultan 

Combination Kelsey Upright 

Duarte Kerr Wickson 

Mam 



DETERMINING NEED OF CROSS-POLLINATION 399 



The following varieties will set a limited amount of fruit 
in certain years with their own pollen^ but set much better 
crops if pollen of other Japanese varieties is available for cross- 
pollination purposes. 

Beauty Methley 
Climax Santa Rosa 

Practically all varieties of Japanese plums with the excep- 
tion of Formosa and Gaviota are cross-fruitful. 

Several of the European varieties of plums are self-un- 
fruitful. The European species {Primus domestica and Primus 
insititia) do not have as high a percentage of self-unfruitful 
varieties as the Japanese and American species. Of those 
studied, the following are self-unfruitful for all practical pur- 
poses and should not be planted in solid blocks: 

Bavay Jefferson Sergeant 

Clyman Imperial Standard 

German Prune McLaughlin Tragedy 

Golden Drop President Washington 

Quackenboss 

The following varieties set fair crops with their own pollen: 

Agen Reine Claude 

California Blue Sugar 

Giant Victoria 

Italian Prune Yellow Egg 

Certain other varieties set light crops with their own pollen 
in some years, but much better crops are produced if pollen 
of other varieties is available. This list includes Diamond 
Grand Duke, Pond, and Shropshire. 

There seems to be practically no-cross-incompatibility 
between European varieties of plums; therefore satisfactory 
crops should be produced if any two varieties are interplanted, 
provided that their blossoming seasons overlap. 

Practically all varieties of American species of plums that 
have been observed in pollination studies are self-unfruitful 



400 



POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING 



Most of them will intercross satisfactorily. Varieties of these 
species are of minor commercial importance in many regions. 

Certain Plum Species Do Not Intercross Satisfactorily. Ap- 
parently varieties of the Japanese and American species are 
interfruitful, and these can be planted together if desired for 
cross-pollination purposes. The European species {Prunus 
domestica and Prunus insititia) likewise appear to be inter- 
fruitful. Varieties of Prunus domestica do not, for the most 
part, cross satisfactorily with those of the Japanese and Ameri- 
can species. 

{d) Cherries, The pollination problem with cherries de- 
pends upon whether sweet, sour, or Duke (crosses between 
sweet and sour) varieties are grown. Practically all varieties 
of sweet cherries are self-unfruitful. Provision should always 
be made for cross-pollination when planting a sweet cherry 
orchard. Most varieties produce plenty of viable pollen, but 
certain ones appear to be better pollenizers than others. Some 
varieties are intersterile. Thus, Napoleon, Bing, and Lambert, 
three very important commercial varieties on the Pacific Coast, 
will not fertilize each other. However, varieties such as Re- 
publican, Black Tartarian, Wood, Early Purple, Rockport, 
Windsor, and certain others pollinate these three varieties 
successfully. 

Sour cherry varieties are self-fruitful in most sections. Ex- 
perimental studies and field observations show that in many 
sections the common varieties of sour cherries such as Early 
Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello, Wragg, and Dye- 
house are usually self-fruitful and will set good crops without 
cross-pollination. Reports from Oregon, however, indicate 
that several varieties, including the IMontmorency, are self-un- 
fruitful for all practical purposes under local conditions. So 
far as is known, varieties of sour cherries blossoming at the 
same time pollinate each other readily. 

Many varieties of Duke cherries are self-unfruitful. Ex- 
perimental evidence available in this country suggests that 
much better crops would result in all Duke varieties if at 



REVIEWING THE CASE 



401 



least two varieties are interplanted when planting the orchard. 

Sweet, sour, and Duke cherry varieties vary as regards 
their interfruitfulness. Varieties of these three groups will 
intercross, but, as a rule, pollen of the Duke cherries does not 
cause as satisfactory a set on either sweet or sour cherries as 
pollen from varieties within their own groups. Pollen of sweet 
cherries will cause satisfactory sets on sour cherries, but as a 
rule the sweet cherries bloom too early to be satisfactory pollen- 
izers for the sour. Sweet cherries will also fertilize the Dukes 
satisfactorily if their blossoming periods overlap. Likewise, 
pollen of the sour cherries will fertilize both the sweet and Duke 
cherries if their blossoming periods coincide. For early-bloom- 
ing Dukes, sweet cherries should be satisfactory pollenizers, 
whereas sour cherries should be more satisfactory for the late- 
blooming varieties. 

{e) Peaches and Apricots. With a few exceptions, all im* 
portant peach varieties that have been studied have been found 
to be self-fruitful. The variety J. H. Hale, however, has been 
shown to be self-unfruitful and practically no crops are borne 
unless pollen from other varieties is available (Fig. 159) . Like- 
wise, the June Elberta appears to be self-unfruitful for all 
practical purposes, and the Late Crawford is usually bene- 
fited by cross-pollination. The pollen of almost any variety 
w^hich blossoms at the same time as these varieties causes a 
good set. 

All varieties of apricots tested, including Blenheim, Lewis, 
Montgamet, Moorpark, Royal, and Tilton, appear to be suffi- 
ciently self-fruitful to set commercial crops. 

(/) Quinces. Although very little evidence has been se- 
cured relative to quince pollination, the data available indicate 
that the varieties commonly grown such as Champion, Orange, 
Meech, and Rea are sufficiently self-fruitful to set satisfactory 
crops with their own pollen. 

4. Reviewing the Case. From the preceding discussions 
of fruit pollination and fertilization, it can be seen that, with 
the possible exceptions of sour cherries, quinces, some of the 



402 



POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING 



European plums, and most peach varieties, provisions should 
be made for proper cross-pollination when planting the orchard. 
In addition to the self-unfruitful varieties, many, if not all, of 




Fig. 159. Lower, a branch from J. H. Hale peach tree showing one 
normal fruit, the result of cross-pollination, and two ^^buttons" resulting 
from self-pollination. Upper, a branch from a tree of the same variety 
on which the fruit was cross-poUinated. (Mich. Special Bui. 188.) 



the varieties of apples, pears, and plums which are listed as 
self-fruitful, or partly so, will usually be benefited by cross- 
! pollination ; at least, larger crops usually result and the June 
■drop, especially in bad pollination years, is less. 



REVIEWING THE CASE 



403 



Ejfect of Pollen on the Size, Shape, and Color oj the Fruit. 
Fruits of the apple and pear which result from cross-pollina- 
tion are often of better shape, size, and color than those result- 
ing from self-pollination, but their shape and color are typical 
for the variety regardless of the kind of pollen used. For in- 
stance, the pollen of a yellow variety like Grimes does not 
cause yellow streaks to appear on red apples ; neither does the 
pollen of a round apple change the shape of an oblong or flat 
apple. Fruits which are cross-pollinated generally have more 
seeds, appear to set and start into growth sooner, hang on bet- 
ter, and, because of increased vigor, generally are of better size 
and color at picking time. The better shape often encountered 
in crossed apples and pears is generally due to the fact that all 
cells contain seeds and thus develop normally. Seeds are often 
missing in some of the cells of self-pollinated fruits, and this 
generally results in lopsided or misshapen fruit. 

Qualifications of a Good Pollenizer. Several factors should 
be considered when selecting a pollenizer for cross-pollination. 

1. It is necessary first to be sure that the pollenizer selected 
produces plenty of viable pollen, and that it will cause a set 
of fruit on the variety to be pollinated. In other words, the 
varieties must be cross-compatible. 

2. The blooming periods of the two varieties should over- 
lap. 

3. The pollenizer should come into bearing as early as the 
variety to be pollinated. 

4. The pollenizer should be an annual bearer, if possible, or 
at least should produce some blossoms every year. 

5. The pollenizer selected should, if possible, be desirable 
commercially. It should not be necessary to select some unde- 
sirable market variety just for pollination purposes. There 
are usually enough good market varieties which are also good 
pollenizers from which to make a selection. 

Cortland is an excellent pollenizer for Mcintosh; Rome 
will pollenize Northern Spy; Delicious and Wealthy will pol- 
lenize almost any varieties with overlapping blooming periods. 



404 



POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING 



Determining the Number and Arrangement of Pollenizers in 
the Orchard, Not more than four rows of a self-unfruitful 
variety should be planted together. If two varieties are being 
planted in equal numbers, four rows of one and then four rows 
of another can be planted, although practical orchard observa- 
tion indicates that two rows of one and then two rows of an- 
other often result in larger crops. Orchardists who have been 
studying this problem in the Shenandoah-Cumberland Valley 
section state that their best crops, especially in bad pollina- 
tion years, occur where not more than two rows of the same 
variety are planted together. If more of one variety is desired 
than another, two or three rows to one, or four to one, can be 
planted. 

If the least possible number of pollenizers is desired, there 
should be at least one pollenizing tree to every thirty trees in 
the orchard, or about every fifth tree in every fifth row. It 
would be much safer, however, to have at least one tree out of 
every nine a pollenizer. This would mean that every third tree 
in every third row should be a pollenizer. 

Whenever two self -unfruitful varieties are planted together, 
only one of which is capable of pollinating the other, a third 
variety should be planted to pollinate the second one. 

For instance, in the case of apples, if Delicious and Stay- 
man Winesap were planted together, the Delicious would pol- 
linate the Stayman Winesap satisfactorily, but since the Deli- 
cious is self-unfruitful, and since the Stayman Winesap pollen 
is of no value for fertilizing any variety, it can be seen that 
practical^ no fruit would be borne on the Delicious. Then a 
third variety, as Grimes or Jonathan, should be planted to pol- 
linate the Delicious. On the other hand if Yellow Transparent 
and Stayman Winesap were planted together the Yellow 
Transparent would fertilize both the Stayman Winesap and 
itself, and satisfactory crops would probably be produced on 
both varieties. 

5. Using Bees for Cross-Pollination. Bees are of great 
value for cross-pollination purposes, and unless wild bees are 



USING BEES FOR CROSS-POLLINATION 405 



very common, every fruit grower should arrange to have 
colonies of bees evenly distributed throughout the orchard at 
blossoming time. 

It has been shown by different investigators that pollen of 
several of our tree fruits is carried only short distances by the 
wind and that agency cannot be relied upon to effect satis- 
factory cross-pollination. No doubt wind, especially by shak- 




FiG. 160. Left, a honey bee with pollen grains on its body as a result of 
visiting blossoms; right, a bumble bee, showing pollen grains. (Mich. 
Special Bui. 188, Photos by Cornelius Clarke, Grinnell, Iowa.) 



ing and jarring the limbs, aids in distributing the pollen from 
the anthers to the pistils of the same blossoms, however, and 
thus helps to cause better sets on self-fruitful varieties, espe- 
cially in peaches and sour cherries. 

Insects are the main agencies in effecting cross-pollination 
between varieties. In flying from blossom to blossom their 
bodies become covered with different varieties of pollen, and 
this is left on the different stigmas as they crowd down into 
the blossom to secure the nectar. Honey bees, because of their 



406 POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING 



large numbers in many regions, play an important part in 
cross-pollination. 

When two varieties of tree fruits are inclosed in a tent with 
a hive of bees, much better crops are borne than if the same 
varieties are inclosed in a tent without bees. It has also been 
clearly shown, for certain self-fruitful varieties of different tree 
fruits, that the set of fruit is greatly increased, even in such 
cases, if bees are present. 

The value of bees in carrying pollen has also been strik- 
ingly shown, especially in bearing orchards of self-unfruitful 
varieties planted in solid blocks, by distributing colonies of 
bees in the orchard and then hanging blossoming branches of 
other varieties in buckets of water in some of the trees and by 
placing some of the branches near the hives. By carrying the 
fresh pollen of the different varieties from the blossoming 
branches to the blossoms of the tree, bees have caused satis- 
factory commercial crops to be produced in large orchards 
which previously had borne very little fruit, though blossom- 
ing freely each year. It is generally necessary to renew the 
blossoming branches once or twice during the blooming period 
so that plenty of fresh pollen will be available. 

Kinds of Bees and Insects as Pollen Carriers. Although 
honey bees are very valuable as pollen carriers, still, in some 
regions, other insects, no doubt, aid greatly in cross-pollination. 
Bumble bees are considered to render great aid in certain of 
the New England states, and various flies are important aids 
in other sections. 

Number of Hives Required. One colony of seven to nine 
pounds of bees to every three or four acres is a good invest- 
ment, and many growers who realize the value of bees keep 
one colony to every one or two acres of orchard. 

It is not merely a question of having some colonies of bees 
in the orchard. They should be healthy and vigorous. Most 
orchardists will prefer to rent colonies from an experienced 
beekeeper who will place colonies, care for them, and remove 



TREATMENT OF ESTABLISHED ORCHARDS 407 



them. The rental charge varies from $3.00 to $5.00 for the 
blossoming season. 

Distance Which Bees Will Carry Pollen, It is impossible to 
state definitely how far bees will fly and carry pollen. This 
will vary, of course, with several factors, such as kind of 
weather at blossoming time and the distance of the bloom from 
the hive. In warm, sunny w^eather, bees may fly long dis- 
tances, and so self -unfruitful varieties, even in rather large 
blocks, may be satisfactorily pollinated even though other 
varieties may be at some distance. However, the value of 
bees, and of pollinating varieties, is especially shown in seasons 
when the weather is cold, damp, and windy, and when only 
occasional short periods are favorable for bee flight. In such 
seasons, when the set is generally poor, and the prices of fruit 
high at picking time, the great value of bees for cross-pollina- 
tion purposes is clearly evident. 

Length of Time to Keep Bees in the Orchards. It is neces- 
sary to have the bees in the orchard only during the blossom- 
ing period. As a result some growers place their own hives in 
the orchard during this period only, or rent hives during this 
time. Most growers remove their bees to other locations as 
soon as blossoming is over for the following reasons: (a) more 
food will be available for the bees, (b) there w^ill be less danger 
of injury to the horses and workmen during the summer, (c) 
there will be less chance of the bees spreading fruit diseases 
such as brown rot of peaches and fire blight of pears, and (d) 
the possible damage to bees from the use of arsenical spray 
is eliminated. 

6. Treatment of Established Orchards in Need of Cross- 
Pollination. As soon as a fruit grower learns that he has a 
self-unfruitful variety planted in a solid block, he should top- 
work one tree in nine (the third tree in every row) or at least 
one tree in thirty (the fifth tree in every fifth row) to a cross- 
compatible variety. In addition, he should place several hives 
of bees in the orchard and bring in blossoming branches of 



408 



POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING 



other varieties each year until the grafts are able to furnish 
sufficient pollen for cross-pollination purposes. 

If the grafts are pruned lightly each year, enough blossoms 
are often produced during the third or at least the fourth year 




Fig. 16L Lower, blossoming branches of a good pollenizer in buckets of 
water hung in the branches of a variety in need of cross-pollination. 
Upper, colonies of bees on their way to Michigan orchards for pollination 
purposes. {Mich. Special Bui. 188.) 



so that it will not be necessary to continue to bring in the 
buckets of blossoming branches. It is very important, how- 
ever, that plenty of bees be retained for distributing pollen 
from the grafts. 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 



409 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 

1. Visit several orchards and determine whether any provisions have 
been made for cross-polHnation between varieties. 

2. Secure data on the date and length of the blooming period of 
several varieties of all tree fruits in the community. 

3. From the data obtained from Study 2, determine what varieties 
would be suitable for cross-pollination purposes as far as the over- 
lapping of their blooming periods is concerned. 

4. Determine whether orchards consisting of several varieties "set'' 
a higher percentage of their blossoms than orchards of one variety. 

5. Which varieties of the different tree fruits appear to '^sef the 
highest percentage of blossom, when planted in solid blocks? 

6. Is the ^^set" of fruit as heavy in seasons when the weather is cold, 
rainy, and windy during blossoming time as when it is warm, quiet, 
and sunny? 

7. Determine where beehives should be located in the orchard for 
cross-pollination purposes. 

8. Remove the petals from a few apple blossoms before the petals 
open, and determine whether bees visit such blossoms when the showy 
attractive petals have been removed. 

9. Place some paper bags over several blossoms of the different tree 
fruits just before the petals open, and remove the bags after the petals 
have fallen. Determine which varieties ^^set" fruit under the bags. 

10. Collect and ripen pollen of several varieties of apples, emasculate 
a few blossoms of each variety, and make several different cross-pollina- 
tions. Determine later which crosses have resulted in the best set of fruit. 

11. Collect blossoms of several different kinds of fruit. Study them 
carefully, make drawings, and label the different parts. 

12. After the "June drop" determine whether there are more or less 
good seeds in the apples which have fallen compared to those still 
remaining on the tree. * 

13. Visit several orchards at blossoming time and determine the 
different insects that are visiting the blossoms. 

14. What percentage of the blossoms "set" fruit in : (a) a well-cared- 
for, vigorous orchard, and {h) a poorly cared-for weak one? 



CHAPTER IX 



MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING THE 

TREES 

DIAGNOSING GROWTH CONDITIONS AND PRESCRIBING 

TREATMENT 

To get satisfactory crops of fruit, good tree growth is neces- 
sary. The decision regarding the method of soil management 
and the kind and amount of fertilizer to use in an orchard 
should be based upon the ability of these procedures to produce 
desirable conditions of tree growth. The kind of soil manage- 
ment chosen affects both the kind and amount of fertilizer 
required. 

Operations : 

Managing Orchard Soils 

1. Determining the system of apple-orchard culture to use. 

2. Selecting the implements for soil management. 

3. Determining culture of other tree fruits. 

Fertilizing the Trees 
1. Deciding whether fertilizers are needed for apple trees. 
:2. Deciding which fertihzers are needed. 

3. Deciding how much fertiHzer to use and when to apply it. 

4. Applying the fertilizer. 

5. Determining the cost of applying fertilizers. 

6. Fertihzing other tree fruits. 

Managing Orcliard Soils 

1. Determining the System of Apple-Orchard Culture to 

Use. In deciding which system of orchard soil management to 
use, the following factors should be taken into consideration: 



APPLE-ORCHARD CULTURE 



411 



(a) Consider the objects sought. 

(b) Consider the different soil-management systems which 

might be used. 

(c) Determine costs of soil management. 

(a) Consider the Objects Sought. The final object sought 
in all orchard operations is excellent tree growth and the 
yearly production of large yields per tree of high-quality fruit 
at as low a cost as possible. Inasmuch as soil moisture, 
nitrates, and organic matter are important factors in securing 
these desirable conditions, and since they are decidedly influ- 
enced by the manner in which the soil is handled, it will be 
well to determine some of the objects sought in orchard soil 
management. 

Some of these objects are: (1) the conservation of mois- 
ture, (2) keeping up a good nitrogen supply, (3) the addition 
of organic matter, and (4) maintaining a proper physical con- 
dition of the soil. It is difficult to separate these four factors, 
since it can readily be seen that, if a good supply of organic 
matter is added, the physical condition of the soil would be 
improved, the nitrogen supply probably would be increased, 
and the water-holding capacity of the soil would be greater. 
The great importance of organic matter in orchard soils can 
thus be realized. 

Considering these points in relation to orchard culture, it i& 
evident that certain soil practices might be better than others. 
Likewise, a certain practice might be satisfactory under ono 
set of soil, weather, and topographical conditions and unsatis- 
factory under a different set of conditions. Although a system 
of clean cultivation and cover crops is very satisfactory on 
level land, it might be quite unsatisfactory on steep lands 
where soil erosion would occur and where the cost of tilling the 
soil would be very great. Although trees might grow well in 
rough, rocky land, it would be very expensive to cultivate such 
land, even if it was possible to do so. 

When organic matter, such as a green manure crop, is 
plowed into the soil, it is decomposed and most of it is changed 



412 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 



into nitrates before it is used by the trees or other plants. 
Various soil micro-organisms such as fungi, algae, and bacteria 
carry on these changes in the soil. 

(£>) Consider the Different Soil-Management Systems 
Which Might Be Used, Many different systems of soil man- 
agement have been and are being used in different orchards 
of this country. Some of these are: 

(1) Sod culture — grass not cut. 

(2) Sod culture — ^grass cut and removed, or pastured. 

(3) Sod mulch — grass or legume cut and raked under limbs of 
young trees, not raked up in old orchard. 

(4) Sod mulch plus additional mulch. 

(5) Clean cultivation and intercrops while the trees are young. 

(6) Clean cultivation, strip cultivation, and alternate-row 
-cultivation. 

(7) Clean cultivation and cover crops. 

It will be seen that the different systems of soil culture fall into . 
two large, general groups: sod versus tillage. In general, the 
nitrate content of the soil is found to be much less under a 
system of sod culture than where a system of clean cultivation 
and cover crops is used, and orchards in sod usually respond 
well to applications of a quickly available nitrogen fertilizer. 
In addition to the fact that the grass itself uses nitrates, it 
has been found that nitrification is much slower and less ex- 
tensive under sod than in cultivated soil. Likewise the amount 
of soil moisture is usually less in the sod orchard, unless a 
heavy enough sod is produced so that an efficient mulch results 
when the grass is cut and left upon the ground. Under that 
procedure the moisture content of the soil appears to be about 
the same in the sod and cultivated orchard during most of 
the year, especially in the deeper and richer soils. Additional 
3iiulching material, such as straw or hay, added to the cut grass 
-will usually insure a soil moisture content equal to that of the 
.cultivated orchard, even under soil conditions unfavorable 
ior a good growth of grass or permanent legume. The danger 



APPLE-ORCHARD CULTURE 



413 



of injury to the trees from mice and other rodents and from 
fire is greater in the sod than in the tilled orchard. 

(1) Sod Culture: In this system, fertilization is usually not prac- 
ticed, the sod is thin and poor, and the grass is not cut. 

From the standpoint of the effect on the trees, this system is gener- 
ally injurious in most orchards. The grass competes with the trees 
for both water and nitrates. Practically always the soil in such orchards 
contains less water and nitrates for the trees than the soil in orchards 
which are cultivated and in which cover crops are plowed under each 
year. Trees in such orchards usually have a yellowish foliage, the termi- 
nal growth and spur growth are weak, the set of blossoms is usually 
poor, the leaves fall early in the autumn, and the yields are small. Heavy 
fertilization, especially with nitrogen for the trees and phosphorus for 
the grass, is beneficial. The system is not recommended unless the soil is 
unusually fertile, and unless some unusual supply of soil water from 
springs, seepage, or some other cause is available most of the year. In 
irrigated sections, its use might be permissible or even advisable in order 
to increase the organic matter of the soil, especially if alfalfa were used 
instead of grass. The grass or alfalfa, especially in bearing orchards, 
should not be removed. 

(2) Sod — Hay, Cut, or Pastured: Under most conditions it will not 
be profitable to cut hay from an orchard. Such a practice robs the trees 
of both moisture and nitrates and should never be practiced in the 
bearing orchard. In commercial orchards it will not pay to pasture 
the land. Horses and cattle and even sheep will remove the foliage, 
fruit spurs, and apples as high as they can reach. It is possible for a 
farmer with two or three acres of orchard to use it as a pig pasture, but, 
if more than three or four pigs per acre are placed in the orchard, they 
may do considerable damage to the roots of the trees and the sod, unless: 
care is taken to keep rings in their noses. In any case some protection, 
should be provided around the trees, especially while the trees are youngs 

(3) Sod Mulch: This system differs from sod culture in 
that an attempt is made to get a heavy growth of grass by 
means of fertilization. The grass is cut at least twice during 
the season and piled about the trees, while they are young, to 
form a heavy mulch over the roots (see Fig. 162 6, c, /) , This 
system may prove satisfactory, at least until the roots extend 
out and occupy so much soil that enough grass would not be 
produced to form a sufficient mulch. Certain experiments 



414 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 



indicate that a legume sod, such as alfalfa or sweet clover, 
would, under most conditions, be more satisfactory than a 
mixture of grasses. The sod-mulch system would no doubt be 
satisfactory in orchards planted on deep, fertile soils, and this 
^stem, or some modification of it, would be highly desirable 
in orchards located on steep or very stony and rocky land, on 
land which tended to be too damp because of seepage from 
springs, and where there are other special factors. The ap- 
plication of sufficient nitrogen fertilizers may make the sod- 
mulch system very satisfactory. 

(4) Sod Mulch Plus Additional Mulch: Many orchards 
are groT\Ti satisfactorily under a system of sod mulch plus addi- 
tional mulch. In this system, in addition to the grass which is 
cut twice a year and piled about the trees, other mulching 
material such as straw, hay, or cornstalks is hauled in and piled 
under the spread of the branches. About 50 pounds of air- 
dried material per tree should be piled around trees ranging 
from 1 to 4 years old. This amount should gradually be in- 
creased to 100 or 125 pounds around a 10-year-old tree. In 
older bearing orchards, from 200 to 300 pounds of such ma- 
terial should be spread about each tree. The mulch should 
not be placed close to the trunk, since injury from mice is 
greater in such cases, but it should extend well out beyond 
the spread of the limbs in order to cover the root system of 
the tree. 

This system on good soils produces approximately the same 
effects a§ clean cultivation plus cover crops. The loss of soil 
moisture is apparently prevented just as well, and the heavy 
mulch kills out the vegetation directly over the roots so that its 
:growth does not injure the trees. 

Trees under such a system make excellent growth and are 
^quite productive. The fruit is often of better color than in 
cultivated orchards, and the apples which drop are protected 
and kept clean by falling on the mulch. 

Under many conditions a nitrate fertilizer should also be 
;added to the trees, and it will probably pay to fertilize the grass 




{Md. Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 162. Different soil management systems, (a) Clean cultivation followed with 
cow peas as a cover crop, (b) Permanent sod of alfalfa which has just been cut. 
The strip in the tree row will be cut next and then the trees will be heavily mulch- 
ed with the cut material, (c) Sweet clover sod mulch. Note the thick mulch of 
clover piled around the tree, (d) Clean cultivation in a young apple orchid, A 
cover crop will be sown in late July, (e) A good cover crop of rye starting in a 
young peach orchid. It was sown early in the season — ^August 1. (f) Sweet clover 
as a permanent sod mulch. Note the large amount of organic matter and mulch- 
ing material produced by this crop. 



416 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 



in the center of the rows with nitrogen, phosphorus, and pos- 
sibly potash in order to keep up the mulch supply. 

Some disadvantages of the additional mulch system: A 
sufficient amount of cheap additional mulch may not be avail- 
able, and if this has to be purchased, the system may be more 
expensive than clean cultivation and cover crops. There is 
great danger of fire in orchards where so much mulch is used, 




(U. S. D. A.) 



Fig. 163. Beans make a good intercrop in the young orchard. 

and it is necessary to take extra precautions against root and 
trunk injury from mice and other rodents. 

It should be said that this system of orchard management 
is gaining in favor, especially since low returns in recent years 
have compelled growers to decrease costs where possible and 
to improve the color of their fruit. They grow their own 
mulching material on adjoining areas. Sudan grass is promis- 
ing for this purpose. 

(5) Clean Cultivation and Intercrops While the Trees Are 
Young: While the orchard is young and non-bearing, the trees 
will not need all the ground, and so intercrops may sometimes 



APPLE-ORCHARD CULTURE 



417 



be grown profitably between the trees (Fig. 163). Such crops 
should consist of any cultivated crop from which money can be 
made. Tomatoes, beans, potatoes, cabbage, corn, or in fact 
almost any of the truck crops wdll be satisfactory. A grain or 
hay crop, because of the nitrates and moisture used, is not 
recommended under most conditions. 

The truck crops, of course, are fertilized and cultivated, 
and as a result, conditions 
for tree growth are also 
good. The rows of crops 
should be kept a few feet 
from the tree rows, this dis- 
tance being increased each 
year until intercropping 
ceases. A cover crop should 
be sown each year at the 
last cultivation of the cul- 
tivated crop so that the 
organic-matter content of 
the soil may be increased 
when the cover crop is 
turned under. 

(6) Clean Cultivation, Strip 
Cultivation and Alternate-row 
Cultivation: The practice of 
cultivating orchard soils from early spring until late in the fall with- 
out seeding or allowing any cover crop to grow means that, sooner or 
later, tree growth and fruit production will seriously diminish. Such 
soils gradually become devoid of organic matter and nitrogen, mois- 
ture is not absorbed or held, and the soils puddle in winter and bake 
and crack in the summer. As a result of such soil conditions, tree 
growth is checked, the foliage looks yellow, and smaller crops of poor- 
sized fruit result. If such orchards are growing on slopes or hillsides, 
soil washing occurs and fertility is lost. 

In young orchards, growing on steep land, a combination of culti- 
vation and cover crops along the tree rows, with sod mulch in the 
center of the rows to prevent washing, is often profitable and satis- 




{Md. Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 164. — Strip cultivation. Tree 
rows cultivated, with permanent alfalfa 
between the rows cut for hay. 



418 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 



factory. This system is also occasionally used in young non-bearing 
trees on level ground (Fig. 164.) It is very questionable, however, 
whether it pays to cultivate the tree rows in orchards on very steep 
land. It would, no doubt, be just as satisfactory to use the sod mulch 
plus heavy fertilization over the entire area. 

With older orchards, alternate cultivation is often used, every other 
row being cultivated one year while the remaining rows are in sod 
mulch. The following year the systems are reversed and the cultivated 
rows are seeded down. By these means erosion is prevented and a part 
of the orchard is cultivated each year. In the past this system has often 
seemed advisable, but whether it will continue to be so in the future, 
in view of the satisfactory responses being obtained in sod-mulch 
orchards when heavier applications of nitrogen fertilizers per tree are 
used, is questionable. 

(7) Clean Cultivation and Cover Crops: Unless the or* 
chard is planted on very steep land, the system of clean culti- 
vation plus cover crops will generally be found to be very 
satisfactory and profitable. On level land, no other system can 
quite equal it in many cases, unless a very large supply of 
some cheap additional mulch is available for use, as outlined 
previously. 

The clean cultivation and cover-crop system consists es- 
sentially of plowing the ground early in the spring, harrowing 
or disking it several times through the summer in order to kill 
weeds and keep a good dust mulch on the surface, and finally 
sowing a cover crop, which is to be plowed under later 
(Fig. 162 a, dj e). In some of the lighter soils, disking can be 
substituted for plowing, but even then it will generally pay to 
plow at least once in every three or four years, in order to 
prevent the formation of a hardpan layer just beneath the 
depth to which the disk reaches. 

By cultivation, weeds are destroyed; the soil becomes bet- 
ter aerated and warmer; the soil particles are broken up into 
smaller pieces, thus presenting a greater feeding area for the 
roots; nitrates are produced early in the spring and in large 
quantities through increased nitrification; the water of rains 
is quickly absorbed, and the loss of water is prevented through 



APPLE-ORCHARD CULTURE 



419 



weed control and to some degree by the dust mulch kept on the 
surface of the soil. 

Organic matter is added by plowing under the cover crops, 
and nitrogen, in addition to that already in the soil, is incorpo- 
rated when legume cover crops are used. The organic matter 
of the cover crops improves the physical condition of the soil 
and increases its water-holding capacity. The decaying or- 
ganic matter liberates carbon dioxide, which makes a stronger 
acid soil solution, so that the other mineral foods already in the 
soil are more readily dissolved and made available for the 
tree^s use. Nitrification normally proceeds much earlier and 
faster in cultivated soils, and as a result more nitrates are 
available for tree growth than where sod culture or sod mulch 
is used. 

Plow in the Fall or Early in the Spring. In regions like 
southern New York and Pennsylvania where there is little 
danger from winter freezing of roots, and where the cover crops 
have been sown early enough in the season to produce a large 
bulk of organic matter, it will probably pay to plow in the fall 
(except in very sandy soils), especially if the ©rchards are not 
on steep land. By fall plowing, earlier cultivation can usually 
be performed in the spring, the organic matter will decay 
sooner, nitrification will start earlier, and there will be no 
danger of the cover crops competing with the trees for water 
and nitrates early in the spring. 

In regions with a climate similar to that of Maryland, Dela- 
ware, Virginia, and North Carolina, plowing can be done 
during the fall or in February and March. The important 
thing is to have the ground plowed before any tree growth 
starts in the spring. 

The reason for cultivating early in order to increase the 
amount of water and nitrates available for the tree is readily 
understood when it is recalled from Chapter IV, ^The Growth 
of the Tree and the Forming of Fruit Buds," that fruit spur 
growth in length is completed for the season about two weeks 
after blossoming and that terminal growth (at the ends of the 



420 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 



branches) is completed about the middle of July, in most sec- 
tions. This means also that the full leaf area is developed 
early in the season, and that large amounts of water are thus 
being transpired. It will also be recalled, from Chapter VIII, 
'Tollination and Fruit Setting,'' that the ^^sef' of blossoms is 
influenced considerably by the amount of moisture and nitrates 
available at blossoming time. 

It is thus evident how essential it is that nothing shall com- 
pete with the trees so that the maximum amount possible of 
moisture and nitrates will be available early in the season, 
when such rapid tree growth and development are taking place. 
If the cover crop is allowed to grow in the spring, much of the 
water and nitrates is taken from the trees. Early cultivation 
not only will prevent moisture loss, but also will help to bring 
about such favorable conditions of temperature and aeration 
in the soil that nitrification early in the season will be more 
rapid and extensive. 

Trees will respond better if plowing is done early than if 
the plowing is done late, even though later cultivation may be 
very thorough. 

Determining the Cover Crop to Use. There are, in general, 
two kinds of cover crops, legumes and non-legumes. The 
legumes, through the aid of bacteria which are present in the 
nodules on their roots, are able to fix the nitrogen of the air, 
but non-legumes do not have this power. It can thus be seen 
tiiat, with legumes, more nitrogen than that which was already 
in the soil before the crop was grown is added when the crop 
is turned under and nitrification has taken place. On land 
where legumes have never been grown, inoculation may be 
necessary. If both legumes and non-legumes are used as cover 
crops, the soil nitrates which might otherwise leach out of the 
soil or be washed away are absorbed by the plants and thus 
returned to the soil when the crop is turned under. 

Winter vetch, crimson clover, cow peas, soy beans, alfalfa, 
and red clover are legumes. Crops such as rye, oats, millet. 



APPLE-ORCHARD CULTURE 



421 



sorghum, buckwheat, rape, and cowhorn turnips are non- 
legumes. 

The choice of the cover crop will vary under different con- 
ditions. In general, that crop should be selected which will 
make the best growi^h at the lowest cost in the locality where 
it is grown. If leguminous crops will thrive and produce 
large amounts of organic matter, rich in nitrogen, they should 
be used. But remember that a large amount of organic matter 
is the important thing in order to improve the physical condi- 




FiG. 165. A cover crop of buckwheat. 



tion of the soil and especially its moisture-holding capacity. 
As a result, if the non-legumes will thrive better under certain 
local conditions and thus produce more organic matter, they 
should be used, as additional nitrogen can easily and cheaply 
be added in the form of some quickly available nitrogen 
carrier. 

In the old orchard a cover crop which is least affected by 
shade should be given preference. It is usually advisable also 
to grow a crop which is not killed by the first frost in the fall 
Thus such crops as rye and vetch will continue growth after 
the leaves of the trees have fallen in the autmn and will make 



422 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 



satisfactory crops under such conditions. If late fall plowing 
is not practiced, then very early spring plowing should be 
done in order to prevent the cover crop from making too much 
spring growth and thus competing with the trees for moisture 
and nitrates. 

Much of the organic matter produced by those cover crops 
w^hich are killed by early frosts may be lost by having the 
leaves blown away. This is often true with cow peas and soy 
beans, for instance, where the orchard is located on an ex- 




Fig. 166. A weed cover crop may often be spotted and thus not produce 
sufficient organic matter. In such cases a standard cover crop should be 

seeded. 



posure swept by strong winds. Often only the stalks remain 
on the ground in the spring. In orchards where fall or winter 
plowing is practiced, this condition is avoided to some extent. 

Often a weed cover crop, such as foxtail, chickweed, rag- 
weed, quack grass, or partridge pea, will grow quickly and 
cover the ground as soon as cultivation is stopped in the late 
summer. Such crops will add considerable organic matter and 
fulfill many of the functions of a standard cover crop. A 
good stand of volunteer grass or weeds is preferable to a poor 
stand of certain cover crops and saves money. The use of 
weeds is questionable, however, since they often come up 



APPLE-ORCHAED CULTURE 



423 



unevenly (Fig. 166) and are a source of spreading obnoxious 
weeds about the farm. This last objection would not be as 
serious on a specialized fruit farm as it would be on a general 
farm. 

Winter Vetch, Winter vetch often makes an ideal leguminous cover 
crop, and good stands are not difficult to obtain. It will usually grow in a 
season too dry for clover, and on soils too acid for good stands of clover 
and alfalfa. It grows in cool weather and makes a heavy mat upon the 
ground. In combination with rye or oats, it makes an excellent cover 
crop. Its main disadvantage in some years is the high price of seed. 

Crimson Clover and Red Clover. Crimson clover makes an excellent 
cover crop where good stands can be obtained. Many orchardists, how- 
ever, have difficulty in getting a good stand. It is rather exacting in its 
moisture requirements at seeding time and winter-kills badly in some of 
the Northern fruit sections. It will not do well on acid soils. 

Red clover and mammoth clover are also popular cover crops where 
good stands can be secured. The cost of seed is likely to be high. 

Alfalfa and Sweet Clover, Alfalfa is used occasionally as a cover 
crop by some fruit growers. Where soil and climatic conditions are 
favorable for a good stand and quick growth, it should be a satisfactory 
cover crop. In many orchard sections it is very difficult, however, to 
obtain a desirable stand and growth during the period when the crop 
must be grown. The soil should be well drained, fertile, and limed if 
acid. Inoculation is important. Growers usually have much better 
success in using alfalfa as a permanent orchard sod than as a cover crop. 

The biennial white sweet clover, like alfalfa, gives promise of being 
satisfactory as a permanent sod in orchards. It will thrive on poorer soils 
than alfalfa. It is quite possible that this clover, and in addition the 
white annual variety, may be suitable as cover crops in some orchard 
sections. 

Soy Beans and Cow Peas. Soy beans and cow peas make good cover ' 
crops in the South, but are not so popular in the North. The fact that 
they are killed at the first frost is an objection. In the South these crops 
need to be fertilized on most soils if a sufficient bulk of organic matter 
is to be produced. 

Rye and Other Grains, Rye is a very satisfactory non-legume cover 
crop. It grows well in cool weather and lives over winter. It should be 
plowed under in the winter where possible or early in the spring, or it 
will compete with the trees for both moisture and nitrates. The fact that 
it grows well even on poor and acid soils where a little fertilizer is used, 
and produces a large amount of organic matter, makes it a very valuable 



424 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 



cover crop in many sections. Oats, barley and wheat are also used as 
cover crops. 

Buckwheat. Buckwheat makes a good cover crop in many orchards. 
It will do quite well on poor soils and thus improve them so that legumes 
can be grown. It is particularly good for improving the physical con- 
dition of a heavy soil. It is killed by the first frost. 

Dwarf Essex Rape and Cowhorn Turnips, These have rather large 
root systems which penetrate the soil deeply and are thus effective in 
improving its physical condition. These crops grow rather late in the 
season and generally form a dense mass of leafy material for plowing 
under. They thrive exceptionally well on heavier soils in cool chmatea 
and where there is a good moisture supply. 

Millet. Millet makes an excellent cover crop in young orchards 
where shading is not a factor. Under such conditions it quickly pro- 
duces a large bulk of organic matter. It does quite well on a wide 
range of soils and is not very exacting in its moisture requirements. 

Time of Seeding. The time of sowing the cover crop is 
influenced by such factors as: locality, age of trees, variety of 
fruit (whether summer or winter apples), type of soil, and 
size of crop. 

If the cover crop is sown too early in an orchard which is 
producing a hea\y crop of fruit, the size of fruit may be in- 
jured under some conditions. It must be remembered that the 
cover crop draws heavily on the moisture supply of the soil. 
With a heavy crop of fruit the cover crops should generally 
be sown later than if the trees are not bearing. 

Cover crops can be sown earlier on heavj soils that are 
retentive of moisture than on the lighter soils. Early sowing 
of cover crops will check tree groTvi;h and thus help to bring 
about a satisfactory maturity of young trees, so they will be 
in better shape to withstand low winter temperatures. 

Under many soil and climatic conditions, and especially in 
the Middle Atlantic states, the cover crops should be seeded 
early enough (late July) so that a large bulk of organic ma- 
terial will be produced and available for plowing under in late 
fall, winter, or early spring. A test for lime should be made, 
and lime and fertilizers should be added if these are necessary 
in order to produce a heavy cover crop. Nitrogen, phosphorus, 



APPLE-ORCHARD CULTURE 



425 



potassium, and lime may all have to be added on some soils to 
get a good growth of cover crops. Inoculation may be re- 
quired for the leguminous crops. 

The first year that cover crops are sown early they may 
reduce the soil moisture content to such an extent, especially 
in a dry season, as to affect the size of the developing fruit. 
The following year and thereafter, however, the soil moisture 
content will usually be so much higher because of the organic 
matter turned under previously that the growth of the cover 
crops will probably not affect the growth of the fruit adversely, 
except under unusual drought conditions. 

Rate of Seeding, Following are suggested amounts of seed 
to use per acre in seeding the orchard cover crops. 

It is often advisable to use mixtures of the above cover 
crops, reducing somewhat the quantity of seed of each kind. 



Amount of Seed 

Legumes to Use per Acre 

Crimson clover. 15 to 20 pounds 

Red clover 12 to 15 pounds 

Alsike clover 6 pounds 

Winter vetch 3^ to 1 bushel 

Cow peas IJ^ to 2 bushels 

Soy beans . . ; 1 to 1 3^ bushels 

NoN-LEGUMES 

Rye, oats, or barley 13^ to 2 bushels 

Buckwheat 1 bushel 

Millet 25 to 40 pounds 

Rape or cowhom turnips 2 to 4 pounds 



Thus in many orchards, a mixture of 10 to 15 pounds of winter 
vetch and 1 to 1^4 bushels of rye makes a most excellent cover 
crop. 

(c) Determine Costs of Soil Management. Cost of orchard 
soil management depends upon the size of the orchard, the 
type of equipment used, and the kind of soil management 
practiced. If an orchard is kept under clean cultivation, it 
must be either disk-harrowed or plowed and kept in proper 
condition by later harrowings. A sod orchard or one in which 



426 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 

» 

each year a system of sod mulch is practiced needs only to be 
mown once in June and perhaps again in September. The 
grass which is close to the trees may be cut with a scythe. 
Soil management undoubtedly costs less in a sod orchard than 
in a cultivated one. Table 45 indicates costs of all types in 
- New York orchards during 1934, 1935, and 1936. 

In the Dale View Orchard in Licking County, Ohio, where 
an orchard was in sod and mowed twice a year, the grass under 
the trees being cut w^ith a scythe, the soil-management cost 
was 3 cents per bushel. 

In the Germantown-Red Hook and Kinderhook area of the 
Hudson Valley in 1931, in 519 orchards where both systems 
of soil management were practiced, it cost $4.02 per acre or 
4 cents per bushel for soil management. 

2. Selecting the Implements for Soil Management. For 
sod orchards about the only implement necessary is a good 
mow^ing machine. In young orchards a hay rake is also neces- 
sary for raking up the cut material so that it can be piled 
about the trees. 

In cultivated orchards, the size of the orchard determines 
largely whether a team and ordinary w^alking plow will be used 
or w^hether a tractor and gang plow can be operated profitably. 
Some of the things which will influence the selection of a trac- 
tor are: (1) its cost, (2) topography of the land, (3) the type 
of soil, and (4) the horsepower developed. On hillside ground, 
tractors with a caterpillar tread will usually be found most 
satisfactory. If the soil is a heavy one, and particularly if 
the grower desires to pull an extra wide (16-foot) orchard 
disk, the horsepower developed by the tractor is an important 
consideration. 

In addition to the above factors, an orchard tractor should 
be as low as possible with practically no levers, exhaust pipes, 
or other mechanical parts projecting up into the air to catch in 
or injure the branches. The wheels should be covered with 
fenders to protect the branches, and arrangements for offset 
hitches should be made. Implements can then be hooked to 



SELECTING IMPLEMENTS FOR SOIL MANAGEMENT 427 



TABLE 45] 

Apples— Costs on New York Farms, 1934, 1935, and 1936* 



Crop year 

Number of farms 

Bushels marketable apples per acre 

Acres of apples per farm 

Growing costs per acre: 

Interest, taxes, depreciation on trees, etc . . 

Nitrogenous fertilizer 

Manure 

Cover crop 

Spray and dust materials 

Labor 

Horse 

Tractor 

Sprayer and other equipment 

Miscellaneous 

Total growing cost 

Costs per bushel: 

Growing 

Harvesting: 

Labor 

Other 

Total harvesting 

Storing and selling: 

Packages 

Commission, storage, transportation . . . . 

Labor 

Equipment 

Use of buildings 

Other 

Total storing and selling 

Total cost per bushel 

Less: Packages, commission, storage, transpor- 
tation 

Ciders, wood, pasture 

Net cost per bushel 

Total returns per bushel 

Less: Packages, commission, storage, transpor- 
tation 

Net returns per bushel 

Profit per bushel 

Returns per hour of labor 



1934 
23 
131 
37.3 



$15.70 
2.13 
1.77 
0.05 
10.55 
11.44 
2.06 
1.96 
5.72 
3.19 



$54.57 



$0.42 

0.09 
0.03 



$0.12 

0.07 
0.05 
0.02 
0.01 
0.01 
0.02 



$0.18 
$0.72 

0.12 
0.01 



$0.59 
$0.87 

0.12 



$0.75 
$0.16 



$0.52 



1935 
24 
180 
36.5 



$13.59 
2.42 
2.19 
0.10 
11.12 
11.97 
1.60 
2.02 
6.57 
3.56 



$55.14 



$0.30 

0.10 
0.02 



$0.12 

0.09 
0.08 
0.04 
0.01 
0.01 
0.02 



$0.25 
$0.67 

0.17 
0.02 



$0.48 
$0.67 

0.17 



$0.50 
$0.02 



$0.34 



1936 
21 
155 

38.7 



$13.90 
2.28 
2.19 
0.13 
11.11 
13.22 
1.37 
2.15 
5.04 
4.22 



$55.61 

$0.36 

0.10 
0.03 



$0.13 

0.08 
0.06 
0.05 
0.01 
0.01 
0.02 



$0.23 
$0.72 

0.14 
0.03 



$0.55 
$1.00 

0.14 



$0.86 
$0.31 



$0.79 



* Department of Agricultural Econoimcs and Farm Management, New York State 
College of Agriculture. 



428 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES. 



the side of the drawbar so that the ground near the trees may 
be worked without running the tractor near them. It is more. 




(Caterpillar Tractor Co.y 
Fig. 167. A disk at work in an Oregon pear orchard. 



important to work the soil close to young trees than older ones^ 
in which the feeding roots are well out between the rows. 



SELECTING IMPLEMENTS FOR SOIL MANAGEMENT 429 

The type of plow desirable for orchard use is one of a two- 
bottom design with ample clearance and penetration. Disk 
plows are satisfactory on many soil types. 

In many orchards, on the lighter types of soils, no plowing 
is done but a disk harrow is used. Such harrows should be 
strongly built, heavy, and durable. Orchard disks 14 to 16 
feet in width are especially desirable, since the sides of the 




(Caterpillar Tractor Co,) 
Fig. 168. Clean cultivation in an Ohio orchard. 



harrow will extend under the branches and the soil will be 
cultivated, although the tractor need not be driven close enough 
to do any damage to the trees (Figs. 167 and 168) . For this 
reason it is usually better not to have the tandem hook up, 
or one disk ahead of the other, for orchard work, but rather a 
wider implement in one plane of action. 

In some orchard sections nothing but plows and disks are 
used, but in most sections the spring-tooth harrow is a part 
of the orchard equipment. These harrows, as well as the light- 



430 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 



draft orchard cultivators (Fig. 169), will pulverize and level 
the soil well. 

In some of the heavier and stonier orchard lands, special 
orchard cultivators with heavy, rigid frames and teeth are of 
great value in leveling the ground after plowing and in culti^ 
vating it during the season. 

In addition to the foregoing implements, such tools as the 




Fig. 169. This light-draft harrow is a very effective implement on land 
free from large stones or rock ledges. 



spike-tooth harrow, the acme harrow, and the plank drag are 
sometimes seen in orchards. The last two of these are of value 
in crushing lumps and in pulverizing the soil in preparation 
for seeding the cover crops if the soil is not stony; the spike 
tooth is of value in covering the seed after it is sown. 

3. Determining Culture of Other Tree Fruits. The peach, 
plum, apricot, and cherry make excellent growth, produce good 
yields, and thrive well under a system of clean cultivation and 



FERTILIZING THE TREES 



431 



cover crops. When proper pruning, thinning of the fruit (with 
the exception of the cherry) , and fertilization, especially with 
nitrogen fertilizers, are practiced, in addition to thorough cul- 
tivation and the turning under of heavy cover crops, little is 
left to be desired. 

Peaches and apricots are very shallow-rooted under most 
soil conditions, and as a result would probably suffer from 
lack of moisture when in competition with grass much more 
than apples would. Although plums and cherries might thrive 
better than peaches and apricots under a system of sod mulch, 
still it is very questionable whether results equal to those se- 
cured under tillage would ever be obtained. 

Like all other fruits, the Tpear thrives well under a system 
of clean cultivation and cover crops. Because of the fact that 
growth may be vigorous and succulent under cultivated con- 
ditions, thus resulting in more injury from fire blight, pear 
orchards are often left in sod in order to check such growth. 
If proper and thorough methods of blight control are practiced, 
however, it is questionable whether it will pay to check growth 
too severely, decrease the bearing area, and reduce total yields 
by keeping the orchards in sod. 'A system of sod and cultiva- 
tion in alternate years may be desirable. Cease cultivation 
earlier in the season than with the apple. 

The quince thrives best when the soil is cultivated, but 
appears to do fairly well under sod mulch conditions also. In 
some regions the quince is so susceptible to fire blight that it is 
almost necessary to practice some system of sod culture in 
order to check rapid growth and thus reduce fire-blight injury. 

Fertilizing the Trees 

The Apple 

It is practically impossible to consider orchard fertilization 
without knowing the system of orchard soil management that 
is being used and the kind of soil upon which the orchard is 



432 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 



growing. If the orchard is located on a heavy loam soil, and is 
cultivated yearly with cover crops plowed under, it will usually 
require a different treatment than if it is growing under sod 
conditions. Cultivated orchards on light, shallow, thin soils 
often require different and larger amounts of fertilizer than 
those on heavy, deep soil. 

1. Deciding Whether Fertilizers Are Needed. The decision 
whether the orchard needs fertilizer should follow a careful 
study of conditions. The color and amount of foliage should 
be noted; whether the leaves are large, plentiful and dark 
green, or whether they are small, sparse, and yellowish. The 
yearly amount of new terminal growth is likewise an index of 
whether fertilizers are needed. Though the most desirable 
length of new terminal gro\^i:h varies with the age of the tree, 
variety, and seasonal conditions, 14 to 16 inches is usually 
desirable for bearing trees. The length of terminal growth 
on young non-bearing trees should range from 18 to 36 inches, 
depending on the age of the trees. Trees from 2 to 5 years of 
age should be making the longer growths. 

The length and diameter of the new growth produced each 
year on fruit spurs should also be determined. Non-bearing 
spurs, making new yearly growths of to % inch, especially if 
the growths are thick in diameter and are well supplied with 
numerous, healthy leaves, can generally be counted upon to 
blossom and set fruit, unless the tree as a whole is in a de- 
cidedly biennial bearing condition. Spurs making quite short 
(i/ie inch) or slender growths usually form very few. fruit 
buds. Likewise spurs which have been forced out into long, 
slender growths often become unproductive. 

The stockiness of the trunk and the general height and 
width of the trees should be taken into consideration. 

2. Deciding Which Fertilizers Are Needed. As stated in 
Chapter IV, ^^Growth of the Tree and the Forming of Fruit 
Buds,'' apple trees need and use for the proper development of 
tree and fruit all the essential elements, but experiments have 
shown that many soils in this country are supplied at present 



DECIDING WHICH FERTILIZERS ARE NEEDED 433 



with sufficient available amounts of these minerals so that 
satisfactory tree growth and fruitfulness are produced without 
adding them as fertilizers. Sufficient nitrogen for best growth 
and fruiting, however, seems to be lacking in many soils and 
on them much better growth and production results whenever 
it is added (Fig. 170) . It is often necessary to add phosphorus, 
potassium, and lime for the growing of farm crops on the 
same soils where fruit trees will show no apparent improve- 




FiG. 170. The row on the left received an application of quickly available 
nitrogen fertilizer. The row on the right received none, but was treated 
the same otherwise. Note the differences in foliage, growth, and yield. 



ment in growth and fruiting from the addition of these fertiliz- 
ers. A possible explanation of this may be that the roots of 
fruit trees range wider, extend deeper, and penetrate all parts 
of the soil more thoroughly. 

Sod orchards respond well to applications of a readily avail- 
able nitrogen fertilizer. Cultivated orchards also, except on 
the heavier and more fertile soils, respond well in many regions. 

Though dried blood, tankage, and fish (all organic nitrogen 
carriers) are beneficial, still most orchards seem to respond 
better to the more quickly available inorganic nitrogen fer- 



434 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 



tilizers such as nitrate of soda or ammonium sulfate. New 
nitrogen fertilizers now available may give as good results, 
for less money, as can be obtained from nitrate of soda. The 
grower should review the fertilizer situation each year and 
shop around to determine the best buy. 

The addition of phosphorus has been beneficial only in an 
indirect way, in that it has seemed to improve the nature and 
amount of the sod in many sod orchards, and likewise has 
helped in causing a heavier cover crop to be produced in tilled 
orchards where it was applied at the seeding of the crop. 

The popular notion of a few years ago that potash would 
improve the color of fruit has not been borne out in recent 
experiments. On the contrary, the development of color seems 
to depend more on having the fruit well exposed to sunlight 
and other favorable climatic conditions such as the proper 
amount of moisture and cool nights, and in having it properly 
matured. The lack of some of these conditions explains, in 
part, why fruit from orchards fertilized with nitrogen some- 
times has the reputation of being somewhat poor in color. 
Such fruit is usually produced under more shaded conditions, 
unless very thorough detailed pruning is given, since the trees 
make a more vigorous growth, and thus have more and larger 
leaves. Its maturity is also delayed, and the fruit on vigorous 
trees should be allowed to hang on the trees longer in order to 
improve in color as much as possible and reach a stage of 
maturity equal to that borne on less vigorous trees. 

3. Deciding How Much Fertilizer to Use and When to Ap- 
ply It. The amount of fertilizer to use will depend on the color 
of the foliage and on the amount of new growth being produced. 
Each orchard thus presents a different problem. One orchard 
may, under certain conditions, need a heavy application of 
nitrogen to bring about desirable growth conditions, whereas 
another orchard under different conditions may need very little 
or none. 

In orchard sections where it has been found desirable to 
fertilize most of the orchards each year, the following ap- 



HOW MUCH FERTILIZER TO USE 



435 



proximate amounts of nitrate of soda, or its equivalent in other 
nitrogen carriers, are being used: l^ pound on 1- and 2-year- 
old trees, and 14 to 1 pound on 3-year-old trees. These 
amounts are then gradually increased until 2 to 4 pounds are 
used for 6- to 10-year-old trees, and 5 to 10 pounds for trees 
ranging from 15 to 30 years old. These amounts should serve 
only as a general guide, however, as the growth and fruiting 
of the tree should be used as an index of how much fertilizer 
to add. 

In general, it is not a good practice to place fertilizer in the 
hole at planting time; in fact, severe injury to the tree may 
result. Good results are often obtained by applying the fer- 
tilizer on top of the soil in a circle 6 to 8 inches from the trunks 
after growth of the trees has started. 

Since quickly available nitrogen fertilizers are applied to 
increase fruit spur and terminal growth and the ^^set^^ of blos- 
soms, as well as to increase the color and size of foliage and 
fruit-bud formation, and to influence other factors, it should 
be remembered that fruit-spur growth in length is generally 
completed within two weeks after blossoming, and that ter- 
minal growth is usually over in most sections and seasons by 
July 15. These facts being known, it is at once apparent how 
important it is to apply fertilizers early in the spring (about 
one month before blossoming). 

In orchards on light, sandy soils where considerable leach- 
ing may occur, it may pay to split the applications: about 
two-thirds of the amount decided upon should be applied before 
the terminal buds start to grow, and the other third just after 
blossoming when the set has been determined. 

Results in some fruit regions indicate that it might be de- 
sirable to apply part of the nitrogen in the spring and part in 
the fall each year, but further studies are needed before grow- 
ers in all regions should adopt such a practice, except in an 
experimental way. 

Thus far it has not been possible to eliminate biennial bear- 
ing through the use of fertilizers. 



436 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 



4. Applying the Fertilizer. When a quickly available 
nitrogen fertilizer is used in the spring, it is generally applied 
by hand. Before the fertilizer is taken to the orchard it is re- 
moved from the sacks, ground or pounded and screened if 
necessary, and loaded into a tight wagon box. The wagon is 
hauled along between two tree rows, and from two to four men 
apply the fertilizer. 

In general, spread the fertilizer about each tree in an area 
extending from about 3 feet inside of the branches to about 
3 feet beyond the spread. Use a cup or small pail previously 
weighed and marked with the proper amount of fertilizer to 
apply per tree, to measure the material, refilling the buckets 
with fertilizer at the wagon as often as necessary. AValk in 
a circle about each tree when applying the fertilizer. In old 
orchards (especially sod-mulch orchards), it will usually be 
best to sow the fertilizer either by hand or with a fertilizer 
distributor evenly over all the area between the trees. 

5. Determining Cost of Applying Fertilizers. The time 
and cost of applying fertilizer to apple trees varies with such 
factors as the amount of material applied per tree, the contour 
of the land (whether steep or not) , and the speed of the men. 

In the Hudson Valley of New York, where the average rate 
of fertilizer applied is 5 pounds per tree, the cost of fertilizer 
and applications average $4.07 per acre, of which $3.28 is for 
fertilizer, 47 cents for labor, and 32 cents for other costs. (See 
Tables 45 and 46.) 

The average cost per acre for fertilizer and manures ap- 
plied on 80 orchards in Berrien County, Michigan, in 1935 
was $3.84. 

For the Shenandoah-Cumberland region the average cost 
per acre over the 3-year period 1929 to 1931 was $4.18. 

Other Trees 

6. Fertilizing the Peach, Apricot, Cherry and Plum. Prac- 
tically all fertilizer experiments in this country have shown 
that peach trees are benefited by applications of nitrate of 



DETERMINING COST OF APPLYING FERTILIZERS 437 



TABLE 46 

Cost of Fertilizing 206 Apple Orchards of 2124 Acres, 
Hudson Valley, 1931 



Cornell Extension Bulletin 355 





Average per 
Acre Fer- 
tilized 


of Tatal 


Time and materials'. 






Fertilizer 


155 pounds 





Labor 


1 . 4 hours 




TT 1 


0 . 7 hours 




Cost per acre: 


Dollars 


Percent 


Fertilizer 


3.28 


80 


Labor 


0.47 


12 


Horse work 


0.15 


4 


Interest on costs 


0.12 


3 


Tractor and truck 


0.05 


1 


Total 


4.07 


100 



soda. Larger trees and greater yields have resulted. In the 
same experiments, except in one or two cases, practically no 
direct benefit has been derived from applications of acid phos- 
phate, lime, or potash. Some indirect benefit has sometimes 
resulted by increasing the growth of the cover crop. It is pos- 
sible, however, that in some of the Southern peach-growing 
regions, as Georgia and the sand hill sections of North and 
South Carolina, benefits may be derived from a complete 
fertilizer. 

Sufficient nitrate should be added to cause terminal growths 
of 16 to 24 inches in length. If too much is added, ripening 
may be delayed, which might be either advantageous or dis- 
advantageous, depending upon the market conditions, and so 



438 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 

much foliage might be produced that the color of the fruit 
would be poor. 

Early nitrate applications have given excellent results, but 
as peach trees bloom earlier and normally grow later in the 
season than apple trees, and as early fruit-spur growth is not a 
factor, it may be wise to delay the application of fertilizer 
until after danger of frost is over and the "seV' of fruit can be 
determined. If the crop should be lost by frosts, less nitrate, 
of course, should be applied. It is possible that other nitrogen 
carriers will be found to be as satisfactory as nitrate of soda 
for peaches. 

Very little evidence is available relative to the fertilization 
of apricots, but since they are so similar in growth and fruiting 
to the peach and Japanese plum, it is reasonable to suppose 
that they will respond to similar fertilizer practices. 

Sour cherry fertilizer experiments have shown that this 
fruit also responds well in growth and production to applica- 
tions of quickly available nitrogen. As a rule, no direct benefit 
has been derived from the addition of acid phosphate or potash, 
except in the very light, sandy soils. Practically no fertilizer 
experiments have been conducted with sweet cherries, but it 
would appear that nitrogen applications would be beneficial 
whenever these trees show the need of fertilization. 

Very little experimental evidence is available relative to the 
fertilization of plums, but orchard observations indicate that 
nitrogen applications will generally be beneficial for all com- 
mercial species, if satisfactory growth and yields are not being 
secured without them. 

The Pear and Quince. Since both these fruits are so sus- 
ceptible to fire blight, it is very questionable whether any fer- 
tilizer should be added to the cultivated orchard, unless the 
soil is so low in fertility that very little growth results. If the 
orchards are in sod, it will probably pay to add small amounts 
of a quickly available nitrogen carrier, such as nitrate of soda, 
about a month before growth starts. This will stimulate early 
growth and assist in the setting of fruit. The growth of gras,? 



DIAGNOSING GROWTH CONDITIONS 439 



will tend to check later tree growth and encourage hardening 
of the wood, making the trees more resistant to fire blight. 

DIAGNOSING GROWTH CONDITIONS AND PRESCRIBING 

TREATMENT 

The various practices to be adopted for each orchard should 
be determined only after a careful study of tree growth, yields, 
and environmental conditions. In diagnosing individual or- 
chards the following factors should be considered: (a) Color of 
foliage — is it dark green or yellow and sickly looking? (b) 
Height of tree — is it dwarfed for its age or overgrown? (c) 
Height and width of tree — is it very tall and narrow, or is it a 
well-balanced tree? (d) Total growth — is it making a satis- 
factory growth of new wood each year? {e) Length of ter- 
minal growth — is the terminal growth 3 inches or 4 feet in 
length? (/) Is the tree productive — are the fruit spurs numer- 
ous and vigorous, and are fruit buds formed? 

With this information the physiological condition of the 
tree can be diagnosed and intelligent treatments prescribed. 

By referring to Chapter IV, *^The Growth of Tree and the 
Forming of Fruit Buds," the four classes in which plants can 
be grouped according to the proportion of carbohydrates and 
nitrogen within their tissues are evident. With the aid of this 
classification, proper treatments can be prescribed. For in- 
stance, it is readily apparent that a seven-year-old orchard, 
on fertile, moist soil, which is being pruned heavily, cultivated 
thoroughly, and nitrated heavily so that a vigorous growth of 
wood is produced, but no fruit buds, is in Class II. In this or- 
chard, less nitrogen should be applied and lighter pruning of 
the tree should be practiced in order to have proportionately 
more carbohydrates and less nitrogen in the tissues of the tree. 
When this is accomplished, the trees would be in Class III, 
producing only a fair growth and good crops. 

Let us assume another example. If a middle-aged orchard 
is growing under sod conditions on poor soil with no fertiliza- 



440 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 



tion, growth of fruit spurs and terminals would probably be 
very short, and few fruit buds would be formed. Since very 
little growth is taking place, carbohydrates would probably 
accumulate in the tissues. Such trees would be in Class IV, 
and it is readily apparent that heavier applications of nitro- 
gen, cultivation of the soil, and a heavier pruning would be 
beneficial. Such a treatment would cause such trees to ap- 
proach Class III, resulting in better growth and fruiting con- 
ditions. 

In some sections, especially in parts of New York and New 
England, difficulty has been encountered with the development 
of what has been termed '^internal cork'^ in the flesh of the 
apple — large brown areas not noticeable on the surface. Many 
of the affected fruits drop prematurely. The condition is 
accentuated by drought conditions during the growing season. 

The difficulty seems to lie in a deficiency of boron in the 
soil. When the supply falls below a certain level, the symp- 
toms described appear. 

Treatment of the soil with borax has given almost complete 
control. Apply it at about the season of the delayed-dormant 
spray application in a circle about 2 feet wide under the outer 
tips of the branches. Measure amounts carefully and dis- 
tribute them evenly. A treatment once in three years seems 
adequate. Do not treat normal trees showing no evidence of 
the disease. Amounts for trees of varying sizes are given in 
Table 47. 

COMMUNITY STUDIES 

1. Make a survej^ of the orchards in your community and determine 
the different methods of soil management being used. 

2. Which method of soil management results in best tree growth and 
yield? 

3. Determine the time of the year when the cover crops are seeded. 
Which cover crop seems most satisfactory under your conditions? Why? 

4. How much organic matter (green weight per acre) is produced by 
the different cover crops? 

5. How much does the seed of the different cover crops cost per acre? 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 441 
TABLE 47 

Rates for Applying Borax to Trees of Different Sizes 



Approximate Trunk 
Diameter 1 Foot 
above Ground 



Amount of Borax for 
for Ring Application 
on Soil 



Inches 



Ounces 



^V2 

5 

7 
10 
14 



8-12 
12-16 



2 
4 
6 
8 



15 up 



6. Does the addition of fertilizer increase the amount of cover crop 
produced? 

7. Which orchard cultivation implements are being used in your 
community? 

8. How many orchardists disk instead of plow their orchards in the 
spring? 

9. Determine the kinds and amounts of different fertilizers being 
used in your community. Which fertilizer appears to give the best 
results? 

10. Do sod orchards appear to show a greater response to fertilization 
than cultivated orchards? 

11. If part of an orchard is in sod and part in cultivation, determine 
which part is making the better growth. Do they respond equally to the 
same amounts of fertilizer? 

12. If possible get some orchardist to allow you to apply different 
kinds and amounts of fertilizers to different rows in his orchard. Note 
the color and amount of foliage produced, the length of spurs and 
terminals, and the yield of fruit. 

13. Which orchardist has the best-colored and largest-sized fruit in 
the community? How does he prune, spray, manage the soil, thin the 
fruit, and fertilize his orchard? 

14. Visit several orchards in your community and diagnose their 
conditions. Study : 



a. Amount, size, and color of foliage. 
h. Length of terminal growth. 



442 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES 



c. Number of new spurs being formed each year. 

d. Length and thickness of fruit spur growth. 

e. Height and width of tree. 

/. Total length of growth being produced. 

g. Number of trees per acre. 

h. Productiveness of trees. 

15. In which group or class would you place these trees? Refer to 
Chapter IV. 

16. Note the type and amount of pruning, kind of soil management, 
and kind and amount of fertilizers being used. 

17. Determine whether you would change any of the practices being 
followed. Support all suggested changes with reasons. 



CHAPTER X 
THINNING FRUIT 

Fruit trees often set more fruit than they are able to bring 
to maturity in marketable condition. This is true even after 
the grower has given proper attention to pruning, spraying, 
soil management, and other standard orchard practices. 

Thinning the fruit on the trees under such conditions is an 
operation that has justified itself in many careful tests. It is 
now a part of the plan of orchard management of many suc- 
cessful growers. Thus far it has been confined primarily to 
the apple, peach, and plum. 

Operations: 

1. Consider conditions under which thinning is advisable. 

2. Consider results that may be expected from thinning. 

3. Determining time to thin. 

4. Thinning apples. 

5. Thinning peaches. 

6. Thinning plums. 

1. Consider Conditions under Which Thinning Is Advis- 
iable. Thinning accomplishes very little unless the tree is carry- 
ing at least a moderate crop. It will accomplish relatively more 
as the load on the tree approaches a heavy or full crop. Thin- 
ning may be worth while if one side of the tree is heavily 
loaded and the other side has no crop, because the size of 
the fruit is largely determined by the leaf surface adjacent to 
the individual specimen and available for its development. 
Only judgment and experience will indicate the point at which 
the operation becomes sound practice. 

443 



444 



THINNING FRUIT 



Varieties naturally medium or small in size will need thin- 
ning when varieties naturally above medium or large in size 
may not require it. The Winesap, Wagner, and Wealthy may 
require thinning when Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig) and 

Tompkins King may not. 

Thinning is relatively 
more necessary on mature 
trees making small annual 
growth or on trees reduced 
in vigor with thin leaf sur- 
face than on young, vigor- 
ous trees of the same varie- 
ties ; on trees grown on light 
soils deficient in moisture 
than on trees grown on 
heavier loams with an 
abundance of moisture; on 
trees growing in sod than 
on trees grown under a 
mulching system or under a 
program of tillage and 
cover crops. 

Thinning is more neces- 
sary in growing fruit to be 
packed in boxes or Georgia 
carriers, or for fancy trade 
where it is essential that it 
be uniform in size and 
color, than if it is to be 
packed in containers for a 
less discriminating trade. It 
is becoming increasingly 
apparent, however, that fruit sold in any closed package for 
any market must be of a higher standard of excellence and 
uniformity than has been acceptable in the past. 




Fig. 171. When good pollination oc- 
curs, the fruit may set so thickly that 
it must be thinned to obtain good size 
and color. 



RESULTS FROM THINNING 



445 



2. Consider Results That May Be Expected from Thin- 
ning. Thinning under proper conditions gives the following 
results: 

(a) Increases proportion of high-grade fruit. 
(6) Reduces breakage of top. 

(c) Reduces handling costs at harvest. 

(d) Does not decrease total yield. 

(e) Does not insure annual bearing. 

(a) Increases Proportion of High-Grade Fruit. Thinning 
insures a much larger proportion of fruit in the higher grades 
by increasing the size of the remaining specimens and by re- 
moving defective fruits at the time of the operation. This is 
its greatest service to the grower and one which has been estab- 
lished and confirmed many times by careful experimental 
work. 

The fruit on a twelve-year-old Stayman Winesap apple 
orchard of medium vigor was thinned in 1926 by the Mary- 
land Experiment Station. The results are indicated in 
Table 48. 

TABLE 48 

Influence of Thinning on Size of Stayman Winesap Apples 



Distance Thinned 


(Diameter of Fruit in Inches) 


Total 
Yield 


0-2 M 


2M-2H 


2H-2K 


214 Plus 






hu. 
.75 


percent 
5.3 


bu. 
2.25 


percent 
15.0 


bu. 
10.5 


percent 
71.2 


bu 
1.25 


percent 
8.47 


bushels 
14.75 






0 


0 


.12 


.96 


2.38 


19.4 


8.75 


79.6 


12.25 




Unthinned check . 


2.25 


15.28 


6.0 


40.68 


6.38 


43.21 


.12 


.81 


14.75 



It can be seen that all the thinned trees produced fruit of 
much better size than the checks. The total yields on trees 



446 



THINNING FRUIT 



thinned 9 to 10 inches apart were somewhat reduced. The 

greatest quantity of marketable fruit was produced from those 
trees thinned 6 to 8 inches apart. As much marketable fruit 
was produced on the trees thinned 9 to 10 inches as on the 
checks, and the fact that the fruit from these trees was much 
larger than that from either of the other groups resulted in a 
greater net return from these trees. On the trees thinned 9 to 
10 inches apart, approximately 80 per cent of the fruit was 

over 2% inches in diameter 
compared to 8.5 per cent in 
the 6- to 8-inch group and 
less than 1 per cent in the 
checks. 

The thinned fruit was 
also noticeably better in 
color, more uniform in shape, 
and freer from all blemishes. 
Similar results were secured 
from eighteen-year-old Stay- 
man trees on good soil. They 
are typical of results ob- 




(N, J, Exp. Sta.) 

Tig. 172. When fruit is borne in . 
clusters, the specimens are variable "^^^^^^^ elsewhere 
in size and are especially subject to 
insect and disease attacks. 



Michigan studies have 
indicated that from one- 
third to one-half of the ap- 
ples put in B grade rather than A grade are so placed because 
of lack of size. 

Results equally striking have been secured repeatedly in 
increasing the size of peaches and plums and in increasing the 
proportion of high-grade fruit. 

Thinning also has a favorable influence on color, which is 
of great importance from the standpoint of grade. In the 
first place, many of the specimens so placed on the tree as to 
color poorly are removed in the thinning operation. The crop 
that remains is thus more uniform in color. By removing part 
of the crop more sun reaches the remaining apples and these 



RESULTS FROM THINNING 



447 



color better. Beyond this point, however, thinning seems to- 
accentuate development of color. This is particularly true of 
peaches. The net result is a crop running better in size and 
color, of greater uniformity, and of more merchantable quality. 

(6) Reduces Breakage of Top. Thinning reduces breakage 
of the top, sometimes very serious, and the necessity for prop- 
ping with its attendant cost. The weight of the crop as it ap- 
proaches maturity is very great, the leverage on the branches 
tremendous, and the danger of consequent injury, especially in 
the presence of high or sudden winds, is much aggravated. 
Thinning insures an even distribution of a crop that the tree is 
better able to carry. 

(c) Reduces Handling Costs at Harvest, Thinning saves 
handling costs at harvest time by reason of the elimination of 
the undersized and defective specimens. Growers know that 
such fruits increase greatly the costs of grading and packing, 
without bringing a corresponding return. A crop 75 per cent 
of which will go in the upper grade with almost no culls is 
much less expensive to handle than one that runs less than 
50 per cent in the upper grade with a large proportion of culls. 
The cost of thinning is therefore largely offset by the reduc- 
tion in handling costs at harvest time. It is cheaper to pick 
at thinning time than at harvest because labor costs less and 
because the specimens are dropped as soon as separated from 
the stem or spur. 

(d) Does Not Decrease Total Yield. Unless carried to ex- 
tremes, thinning does not decrease the total yield of fruit. 
Many growers claim that it results in an increased yield. 
Careful tests have indicated, however, that there is little in- 
fluence on total yield, under ordinary conditions. Thinning 
increases both the total yield of marketable fruit and the pro- 
portion of such fruit that packs in the upper grades. These are 
the factors of concern to the grower. 

(e) Does Not Insure Annual Bearing. It is often claimed 
that thinning promotes or insures annual bearing, and that a 
biennial bearer may be made to produce a crop each year by 



448 



THINNING FRUIT 



judicious thinning. Evidence to date disproves the assertion, 
at least for the apple. Note the statement on this factor imder 
^Thinning Peaches/' It has been noted, however, that trees 
thai have borne a moderate crop seem to possess greater resist- 
ance to severe winter temperatures than trees that have carried 
an excessive crop. 

3. Determining Time to Thin. Growers are familiar with 
a natural dropping of fruit usually occurring in June and 
commonly termed the '^June drop.'' This is probably due in 
part to lack of sufficient water and food for all the specimens 
and in part to diseases on the stem and to insect injuries. 
There is little doubt that lack of sufficient water and nitrates 
for all the fruit influences the dropping of individuals on weak 
spurs and those with few seeds (faulty pollination). 

Thinning should preferably follow the Jime drop while the 
fruits are small, but it has been found that the period during 
which thinning may be done to advantage is more extended 
than previously supposed. Early thinning, however, will 
allow the moisture, mineral nutrients, and elaborated foods to 
be used by the fruits v>'hich are to remain on the tree rather 
than by those which are to be removed. The most common 
mistake in thinning is to fail to remove enough fruit. Growers 
have found that additional thinning later in the season has 
given good results, though not so marked results as that done 
soon after the June drop. 

4, Thinning Apples. Remove the specimens inferior in 
size, those malformed and defective, and those so located on 
the under sides of the lower branches as not to color well. Take 
off in addition enough good specimens so that those that re- 
main are at least 6 to 8 inches apart, except that a few apples 
close together on a limb with large leaf area will size up well. 
The amount of leaf area per apple should be considered. Some 
varieties tend to set fruit in clusters. Xot more than one 
fruit should be left on a spur. This will usually be the center 
one if it is a good specimen, since it is in a more favorable 
position for growth than the others. Apples should not be 



THINNING APPLES 



449 



allowed to touch, since they afford at the point of contact an 
easy means for entrance of the side-worm broods of codling 
moth. A few varieties, however, bear in terminal clusters, like 
Winter Banana and Cortland. These cannot be thinned so 
that no apples are in contact without reducing the crop con- 
siderably. 




Fig. 173. These Stayman Winesap apples were thinned to 6 to 7 inches 
apart. There will be little loss in grading. 



Thinning is usually done by hand. Some growers use shears 
with slender blades, such as grape picking shears. Care must 
be exercised not to break off the spurs. In thinning by hand, 
the apple stem is grasped by the thumb and forefinger and the 
fruit is pushed off the stem with the other fingers. The strain 
is put on the stem rather than on the spur. Women often are 



450 



THIXXIXG FRUIT 



more satisfactory for thinning than men, since they do the 
work just as well on the average and more rapidly 

Cost of Thinning, Thinning costs are influenced by spread 
and height of trees, cost and quality of labor, the extent of 
crop on the trees, and other factors. The AYest Virginia Sta- 
tion found that, with labor at 20 cents per hour and doing the 
work very carefully, it took 65.3 minutes per tree to thin Ben 
Davis trees 21 years old bearing 12 to 15 bushels each, or an 
average of 21.8 cents per tree. It was found that middle-aged 




{Md. Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 174. Effect of thinning old Greensboro peach trees in a dry season. 
{A) Yield per tree with fruit thinned 6 to 8 inches apart — 2V2 bushels of 
peaches, 2^/4 inches in diameter, and bushel of peaches l^i inches in 
diameter. (B) No thinning, 1 peck of 1% inch peaches and 3 bushels of 
culls (less than 1^4 inches). 

trees with low heads, bearing about 15 bushels per tree, could 
be thinned on the average for 30 cents per tree. In sections 
where the cost of labor exceeds 20 cents per hour, the expense 
would be correspondingly increased. 

In large orchards in the Shenandoah-Cumberland district, 
in 1927, it took on the average 25 minutes per tree to thin 
12-year-old Oldenburg (Duchess) trees bearing bushels of 
fruit; and 28.2 minutes to thin 15-year-old Wealthy trees 
bearing 6 bushels of fruit. 



THINNING PEACHES 



451 



Actual or Net Thinning Costs. It has been found in ex- 
perimental work as well as by commercial growers that the 
actual cost of thinning is almost negligible. The apples must 
be picked at some time. Thinning saves handling culls at 
harvest and grading out undersized fruit. The final crop, as 
already indicated, is 
often as large as 
from unthinned 
trees; it is of better 
and more uniform 
size and color and 
therefore a much 
more merchantable 
product. 

5. Thinning 
Peaches. Thinning 
the fruit on well- 
loaded peach trees 
is a standard or- 
chard practice. 

Early varieties, 
as Carman and 
Greensboro, respond 
well to thinning 6 
to 8 inches apart, 
removing 50 per cent 
or more of the fruit. 
Later varieties, nat- 
urally of larger size, 
may be thinned to about 4 inches apart, removing from 30 to 
40 per cent of the crop. Thinning is especially important in 
dry seasons and on old trees. Even in young trees on strong 
soils, the fruit should be thinned so that it does not touch, in 
order to retard development of brown rot. 

The New York Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva 
found, in experiments covering a 3-year period, that the stage 









1 







(Md. Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 175. (a) An unthinned peach branch. All 
the fruit will be small, (b) Thinned 4 inches 
apart, (c) Thinned 6 inches apart. 



452 



THINNING FRUIT 



of development of the young fruits is a much more reliable 
index of the proper time to thin than the calendar, and that 
the time when the fruits are about % inch long with the pits 
still soft is the most favorable from the standpoint of influenc- 
ing size and color, favorable effects from the operation de- 
creasing gradually beyond that point. It was found also that 
thinning at the stage indicated did give over the 3-year period 
larger yields than thinning later in the season. The increase 
was particularly marked in a light-crop year for peaches in 
general so that the returns from the trees thinned as indicated 
were substantially greater. 

In the Shenandoah-Cumberland region records from vari- 
ous commercial orchards indicate that it took 32 to 34 minutes 
per tree to thin large Hiley trees 16 years old, from which 
3 bushels of fruit were picked at harvest. 

6. Thinning Plums. No fruit responds to thinning more 
than the plum. This is especially true of the Japanese 
varieties such as Abundance or Burbank, which often bear 
fruit almost in ropes along the branches. Under normal condi- 
tions thinning from 2 to 3 inches apart leads to a marked in- 
crease in size of the specimens without affecting the total 
yield. 

COMMUNITY STUDIES 

1. Visit ten of the leading apple and peach growers in the community. 

2. Determine how many have thinned and discontinued the practice, 
and the reasons therefor ; how many have adopted it as standard orchard 
practice. 

3. Determine from growers: 

a. Conditions justifying operation. 
h. Time of operation. 

c. Method of thinning. 

d. Results in terms of total crop, proportion in higher grades, 

cost of harvesting and packing, prices received. 

e. Thinning costs. 

/. Taking into account saving in costs at harvest time by reason 
of thinning, how much thinning adds to the cost of grow- 
ing the crop. 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 



453 



4. Compare net income from orchards of growers practicing thinning 
with income from orchards of those who do not, selecting as nearly as 
possible orchards having conditions that are similar and comparable in 
other regards. 



CHAPTER XI 



FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING 

The educational values in fruit exhibits, both to the grower 
and the general public, are very great. Such exhibits afford an 
opportunity to study varieties and to compare their merits 
for various sections. They offer a stimulus to growers to im- 
prove quality as a result of the rivalry between' them, and, in 
case of commercial exhibits, to improve methods of packing. 
Progressive growers may be noted at any good exhibit taking 
keen interest in the fruit on display. 

The publicity or advertising values in creditable exhibitions 
are very great. Fruit that is well grown and displayed with 
good taste and judgment carries an appeal to which the public 
is very susceptible. 

Operations: 

1. Selecting fruit for exhibit. 

2. Setting up the exhibit. 

3. Judging fruit. 

1. Selecting Fruit for Exhibit. The j&rst essential is to 
grow good fruit. The matter thus reverts at once to those 
factors that constitute good orchard management. Pruning, 
spraying, and proper soil management all play an important, 
part. Thinning may be of especial importance in promoting 
size and color. 

When the time comes to pick the fruit, handle it with ex- 
treme care. Pick several times the quantity that will be ex- 
hibited in order to give a wide choice and to allow for losses 
in handling. The experienced exhibitor will often pick several 
bushels of his best fruit in order to select from it a few plates. 

454 



SETTING UP THE EXHIBIT 



455 



Stems should not be broken off or pulled out. Fruit in the top 
of the tree, if it has been well sprayed, is likely to be desirable. 
It is more exposed to sunlight than that on lower branches 
and as a result usually has both a higher and more even color. 

Early varieties in season before the time of the exhibit may 
be picked when they have reached their greatest perfection in 
appearance, but while still firm, and held in cold storage. 

If the fruit must be shipped to the exhibit, pack it with the 
utmost care. For single plates, each specimen should be 
wrapped and protected from bruising. In fact, this procedure 
should be followed whatever the manner of taking the fruit to 
the place of exhibition. 

The actual selection of the specimens to be put on exhibi- 
tion will be governed by the score cards in use and is con- 
sidered under ^^Judging Fruit." 

2. Setting Up the Exhibit. In making plans to set up the 
fruit, all decorations and embellishments should be kept sub- 
ordinate to the fruit itself. The fruit is the major attraction. 

The Background. A neutral background that does not 
compete for attention with the fruit is best. Subdued tints and 
tones on walls and tables are in order. 

For exhibits of red fruit, dark green oatmeal paper provides 
a good background on the tables. Greens of various shades 
are in common use for exhibits. Often the tints are too light 
and too striking. For light-colored fruit, including pale or 
green apples, burlap in a natural color is superior to the green 
oatmeal paper. In fact, it is a very satisfactory shade for 
use in connection with all fruit. Burlap in a darker tan shade 
is also good. Wide tables are desirable if they are not so 
wide as to prevent study of the fruit in the centers. 

Arrange Fruit for Mass Effect, This may be secured by 
putting the fruit on the interior tables all on the same level. 
Fruit in packages may be banked about the sides of the room 
to good advantage. The effect of many exhibits at fairs and 
other places of display is greatly lessened by arranging the 
fruit on shelves or in tiers so that the eye must be raised from 



456 



FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING 



one level to another, encountering drapes of bunting or papei- 
in pronounced patterns between. 

Plates. Paper plates are less expensive than china and on 
the whole look better, since they lack the gloss of glazed plates. 
A papyrus plate with rough finish is more attractive than a 
smooth paper plate. A rolled edge adds to the strength of the 
plate and lessens danger of breaking it when it is picked up. A 















^KkK fiJf" ttii^ ^ 

mm ui2: tSJaJ : 







{N. J, State Hort. Soc. ) 



Fig. 176. Apples packed in "flats" and arranged in banks produce a 
mass effect that is very pleasing for exhibit purposes. 

plate 8 inches in diameter is desirable unless the fruit is very, 
large. 

Place all specimens in the same order on every plate. For 
instance, the accepted method for displaying a plate of five 
apples is to put four apples with stems up on the plate and the 
other apple, stem end up, on top of the four, over the center of 
the plate and resting on all four apples. Pears are usually 
placed on one cheek, stems to the center of the plate, or with 
the fifth pear on top of the others. 



SETTING UP THE EXHIBIT 



457 



Alignment. Place the plates in exact alignment on the 
table, and so that the fruit itself on the various plates is in 
alignment. To have the apples on one plate form a square, 
with one apple in the center, as the observer looks at them, and 
to have the apples on the next plate comerwise or at an angle 
is poor alignment and not in the best of taste. Have the angles 




(N, r. state College of Agr.) 



Fig. 177. This exhibit is arranged to give a pleasing effect. The fruit is 
on the same plane throughout, there is no crowding, and the alignment of 
plates is good. A more extensive bank of "flats" at the rear and plain 
drapery for the sides of the tables would improve the appearance of the 

exhibit. 

of the fruit on the plates parallel with the angles of the table 
top. Do not crowd the plates on the table. Leave a small 
space between them, not in order that the background may be 
evident, but in order to make each plate stand out by itself as 
a picture in a frame. 

Labels. A major offense in setting up a plate exhibit is to 
put the tag or label on top of the uppermost specimen on the 



458 



FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING 



plate. The observer sees not the fruit but a sea of tags that 
get between him and the things of interest. Large tags or 
tags of different colors put on the plates without order or plan 
may spoil an otherwise attractive display. 

Use small white cards. Attach them directly to the plate 
by means of pins having clips at the top, instead of the usual 
head, to hold the cards. Put these cards in the same position 
on every plate so that they may be easily seen from the edges 
of the table but so that they do not protrude above the level of 
the fruit. A good .plan is to place the card on the back edge 
of the plate with its long axis parallel to the long axis of the 
table. 




Fig. 178. This fruit has been carefully selected, correctly arranged, and 
properly labeled. The result is pleasing. 



The card should give the name of the variety and such other 
information as is required by the nature of the exhibit. The 
locality or section from which the fruit comes has real educa- 
tional value and interest. The grower's name is also desirable 
unless the fruit is entered for competition. In such case the 
name should be inserted after the judging is completed. 

Tags giving merely the entry number or other classification 
in common use at fairs and competitive displays are mean- 
ingless to the general public. 

Put all plates of the same variety together where possible, 
following an alphabetical arrangement. This makes it easy 
to find varieties and to compare different plates of the same 
yariety. 



k 



JUDGING FRUITS 



459 



Commercial Packages. Commercial packages must be of 
the nature required by commercial practice and by the rules. 
The same general principles governing plate exhibits also apply 
to them. A very effective exhibit device is the box flat. This 
is an apple box cut down so as to hold one layer of fruit. Ar- 
ranged in banks, with colors and designs carefully worked out, 
these flats are exceedingly attractive. 

Polishing Fruit, Polishing the specimens with a dry cloth 
gives them a glossier finish than they possess in their natural 
state. Many feel that the fruit should not be polished any 
more than it should be peeled, since the bloom is a part of the 




Fig. 179. Each of these Baldwin apples shown on the same plate is a 
good apple in itself, but the specimens are so diverse as to size, shape, 
color, and length of stems as to make the plate of no value in a 

competitive exhibit. 



natural product. However, unpolished fruit may be at a dis- 
advantage in competition with that which has been polished. 
The matter should be covered in the rules governing the ex- 
hibition. 

3. Judging Fruits. Five specimens of apples, pears, 
peaches, and quinces, and three clusters of grapes constitute a 
plate at most exhibitions. Plums and cherries sufiicient to cover 
an 8-inch plate are usually required. The smaller fruits, as 
berries, are usually exhibited in small packages as pint boxes. 

For plate exhibits of tree fruits the American Society for 
Horticultural Science has promulgated rules and score cards 
which are now generally accepted and used. 



460 FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING 

The score card is: 



Form 15 

Size 15 

Color 20 

Uniformity 20 

Condition 30 



100 



Thus a perfect plate would score 100 points. The terms relate 
to the following: 



Form. Typical of the variety. 

Size, The most acceptable commercial size. 



The American Society for Horticultural Science has promul- 
gated certain sizes as being acceptable for the different varie- 
ties of apples. These sizes are: 



Dlameter 

Variett in Inches 

Arkansas 3 to S^^ 

Baldwin 2% to 3% 

Ben Davis 23/^ to 314 

Delicious 278 to 3^/4 

Esopus 3 to 3V2 

Grimes 2% to 3% 

Hubbardston 2% to Z^A 

Jonathan 2% to 3 

King David 2% to 3% 

Mcintosh 2% to 31/2 

Northern Spy 31/3 to 31/2 

Northwestern Greening 3^/4 to 3% 

Rhode Island Greening 3 to 3% 



Diameter 

Variett in Inches 

Rome 3 to 3% 

Roxbury 2% to 3% 

Stark 3 to 3% 

Stayman Winesap .... 3 to 3% 

Tompkins King 3^4 to 3% 

Wagener 2% to 3% 

Wealthy 2% to 3% 

Williams 2% to 2% 

Winesap = 2% to 3 

Winter Banana 31/8 to 3y2 

Yellow Bellflower 3 to 3% 

Yellow Newtown 2% to 3% 

York Imperial 31/8 to 3% 



Allowan<je must also be made for sectional influences. A 
New England Jonathan would be considerably smaller than 
one from Missouri or the Northwest. 



JUDGING FRUITS 



461 



The tendency of the inexperienced exhibitor is to select 
oversized specimens. 

Since oversize specimens are usually not so well colored 
as somewhat smaller ones, it is generally a safe rule to select 
those that combine the largest size with the highest color. 

Color, The most acceptable commercial color for the 
variety. Since in red varieties the public shows its prefer- 
ence for high color on nearly every occasion, it follows that 
pronounced color is important. 

Russet or green varieties should be true to type. 

Uniformity, All specimens on the plate should be uniform 
with respect to the other factors on the score card. Uni- 
formity is of especial importance, because if it is lacking the 
plate receives a double cut. For instance, if the form of a 
specimen is off type, a cut is made under the heading of form 
and another cut is made under uniformity. This is really 
double jeopardy but is probably warranted by the importance 
of the factor. Exhibitors fail more often on the question of 
uniformity than on any other. It is easy to pick out one good 
specimen and not difficult to select one or two more like it. 
To secure five specimens, each the counterpart of all of the 
others, requires a degree of skill and nicety of judgment 
possessed by few and then only after long practice. 

Condition, This relates to general physical condition and 
freedom from blemishes. In regard to the former, the fruit 
should be firm, not flabby. In order to determine condition it 
is not necessary to indent the flesh with thumb or fingers, 
the mark of a novice. Hold the specimen in the palm of the 
hand and exert a general pressure by closing the hand over it. 

A 'committee of the American Society for Horticultural 
Science has arranged blemishes or defects in four groups, 
running from the more serious defects to those of lesser signifi- 
cance.* The extent or degree of the blemish is just as im- 
portant as its exact nature. 

*B. D. Drain, "Report of Committee on Standardizing Intercollegiate 
Fruit Judging," American Society for Horticultural Science, 1925. 



462 



FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING 



Group I 

Codling moth Apple blotch 

Soft rot (caused by Penicillium Bitter rot 
expamum) 

Railroad worm Apple scab 

Group II 

Worm injury (various kinds as Withering (including shop worn) 

lesser apple worm) Unhealed skin punctures 

San Jose scale Unhealed growth cracks 

Storage scald Red bug damage 

Group III 

Baldwin spot Curculio damage 

Jonathan spot Black rot 

Physiological breakdown Sooty fungus 

Water core Cedar rust 

Heavy bruise (skin not broken) Over-ripe (slightly) 

Group IV 

Entire absence of stem Slight spray russeting 

New England fruit-spot (caused Small rub spots (caused by limbs 

by Phoma pomi) and twigs) 

Fruit spots (unidentified) Slight russeting (cause unknown) 

Small insect stings (healed) Small packing bruises 

Hail damage (slight) Insect eggs (example, European 

Small red spots not caused by red mite eggs) 

scale 

Another score card in use in some sections is: 

Form 15 

Size 15 

Color 25 

Condition 15 

Freedom from blemish 30 



100 

The factor of uniformity is not listed but is taken into 
account under the headings of form, size, and color. Condi- 



JUDGING FRUITS 



463 



tion relates to maturity and physical soundness ; freedom from 
blemishes to mechanical injuries and those caused by insect 
or disease. 

The standard score card for grapes is 

Form of cluster 10 

Size of cluster 15 

Size of berry 10 

Color 10 

Uniformity 10 

Firmness 5 

Quality 20 

Condition (including bloom and blemishes) 20 

100 

For commercial packs of apples and pears in boxes, the 
following score card was adopted by the American Society 
for Horticultural Science: 

Fruit 

Texture and flavor 100 

Size and form 100 

Color 150 

Uniformity 150 

Freedom from blemishes 150 

650 

Box 

Material 30 

Marking 10 

Solidity (nails, cleats, etc.) 10 

50 

Pack 

Bulge 100 

Alignment 20 

Height of ends 60 

Attractiveness and style 40 

Compactness 80 

300 



Total 10: 



464 



FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING 



Score Cards for Collections 



(a) With specified number of plates: 

Value of varieties for purpose stated 50 

Fruit (average of individual plate scores) 50 

Total 100 

{b) Largest and best collection: 

Number of varieties 100 

Value of varieties for purposes stated 100 

Fruit (average of individual plate scores) 100 

Total 300 

A score card for baskets and hampers has not been worked 
out as carefully as for other packages. The following is 
suggested: 

Package (appearance and workmanship) 15 

Bulge or height of pack including compactness .... 15 

Fruit: 

Form 10 

Size : 10 

Color - 20 

Condition (including blemishes) 30 



100 

Use of Score Card. The exact score of a plate or package 
is usually of less importance than its relative rank when 
compared with other plates or packages. One judge may 
cut or score much more heavily than another; yet if both are 
* consistent the final ranking or order of placement will be 
the same. The use of the score card for a time impresses the 
relative importance of the different items so that the user 
unconsciously takes the different points into consideration in 
ranking the exhibits in later work, even though the score card 
may not actually be used. 

It is usually best to do the judging in the comparative 
sense. Certain entries may usually be eliminated without tak- 



JUDGING FRUITS 



465 



ing the time to apply the score-card method, because it may 
be seen at a glance that they are outclassed. 

In using the score card, make cuts on a percentage basis. 
Unless this is done, the mind, tending to deal with whole 
numbers, will make too heavy cuts on the less important fac- 
tors on the score card and too moderate cuts on the more 
important factors. Thus, in the usual score card for apples, 
a cut of two points on size is a 20 percent cut, while a cut of 
two points on color is less than 10 percent. 

How to Identify Varieties of Fruit. It is a valuable asset 
to be able to identify the major varieties of the various fruits. 
It is difficult to put forth a formula by which this ability 
may be acquired. Some of the most accurate judges have 
difficulty in explaining just how they recognize varieties. 
Much, however, can be accomplished in this direction by study. 
The suggestions given apply directly to the apple but may be 
adapted to other fruits. 

Begin with a small number of varieties. Secure specimens 
from different regions in order that local variations may not 
mislead. Study these varieties several times a week through- 
out the season. Increase the list as knowledge increases. 

Look for the constant external factors. Shape is much 
more reliable as a guide than size or color. The length of the 
stem and the depth of the cavity in which it is placed; the 
size and appearance of the dots that stand out in the skin on 
close inspection; the way the color is laid on, whether in 
stripes, splashes, a blush on the cheek, or in a solid effect; the 
depth of the basin or depression at the blossom end, whether 
the sides of the depression are straight or sloping; the calyx 
lobes, whether open and spreading, or closed and folded over 
each other — all are points that have bearing and tell their 
story to the person who studies them. Likewise, unusual cor- 
rugations or enlargement, such as appear characteristically 
about the calyx of Delicious, or suture lines running from 
stem to calyx over the outer surface as in Tolman or Winter 
Banana, are significant. 



466 



FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING 



Some of these characteristics may be off type in a specimen, 
but it is seldom that all or any large number of them will be 
misleading. To safeguard the situation further, judgment 
should be based on several specimens rather than on a single 
one. 

Interior characters are also significant when they can be 
determined. These relate to color of the flesh, colored threads 
extending to the core, size and shape of core lines and their 
manner of union with the calyx tube, position of core on the 
axis from stem to calyx, number of seeds, size of seeds, size 
and shape of pits, etc. The flavor and the juiciness of the 
flesh in fruit that approaches eating condition are leading 
factors. However, most of the work of identification and judg- 
ing for general purposes is done with reference to external char- 
acters, either in tree or small fruits. External factors then 
should be studied with thoroughness and accuracy. 

Many identification keys or classifications have been de- 
veloped by various individuals, but none of them as yet is 
infallible or even very satisfactory for variety identification. 



r 



Part II 



GROWING SMALL FRUITS 

The term "small fruits" has come to be applied to the 
strawberry, the bush fruits, brambles, and sometimes the 
grape. So far as these fruits require distinct treatment, they 
are discussed separately in this section. 

The turnover as compared with the tree fruits is much 
more rapid; one may go into or out of the business quickly. 
These fruits, with proper attention to variety adaptations, 
may be and are grown over wide areas and, especially the 
strawberry, under divergent climatic conditions. Many of 
the small fruits are highly perishable and must be harvested 
and consumed within narrow time limits. Although this is a 
disadvantage in some respects, it gives the opportunity to 
develop local areas to meet local demands with satisfactory 
returns up to the normal requirements of the community. 
Larger producing sections must, of course, find their outlets 
on the general market. In either event, an adequate labor 
supply must be immediately available when the fruit is ready 
to harvest. 

Before deciding what fruits to grow or where to grow 
them, consult authoritative agencies in the section and the 
experience of successful growers. 



467 



CHAPTER XII 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 

The strawberry is grown for home use in every state and 
in carlots for commercial purposes in three-fourths of the 
states of the Union. It is at home throughout all the country 
east of the Missouri River, in the South, and on the Pacific 
Coast. See Table 49. 

Operations: 

1. Selecting the location and soil. 

2. Preparing the field. 

3. Selecting varieties. 

4. Determining time of planting. 

5. Determining the planting system. 

6. Setting the plants. 

7. Managing the soil. 

8. Controlling insects and diseases. 

9. Protecting plants in winter. 

10. Harvesting and marketing the crop. 

11. Determining treatment of plantation after harvesting. 

1. Selecting the Location and Soil. Earliness of ripening 
is usually important. Sandy or gravelly soils and those with 
a slope giving the maximum of sunshine help in this regard. 
Loams with a good moisture supply will yield more heavily, 
with maturity somewhat delayed, than lighter and drier soils. 
Sandy or gravelly loams underlain with clay, that are reten- 
tive of moisture but loose enough for drainage and easy 
tillage, are desirable. Soils with high clay content are likely 
to cause loss through freezing and '^heaving" in the colder sec- 

468 



SELECTING THE LOCATION AND SOIL 469 



TABLE 49 

StRA WB ERRIE S C OMMERCIAL * 



Group and State 



Early: 

Alabama 

Florida 

Louisiana 

Mississippi 

Texas 

Group total or 
average . . 

Second early: 

Arkansas 

Calif., S. dist. 

Georgia 

N^ Carolina. . . 
S. Carolina. . . 
Tennessee .... 

Virginia 

Group total or 
average . ^ . . . 

Intermediate: 

Calif., other 

Delaware 

Illinois 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Maryland 

Missouri 

New Jersey. . 

Oklahoma 

Group total or 
average 

Late: 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Michigan 

New York 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania .... 

Utah 

Washington 

Wisconsin 

Group total or 
average 



Total, all states . . . . 



Acreage 


Yield per Acre 


10-Year 






10-Yr. 






Acreage 


1938 


1939 


Av. 


1938 


1939 


1928-37 






1928-37 






Acres 


Acres 


Acres 


Crates'\ 


Cratesf 


Cratesf 


4,050 


3,300 


3,600 


75 


74 


85 


8,120 


7,500 


9,000 


68 


70 


85 


20,210 


22,000 


20,000 


65 


50 


70 


880 


360 


350 


53 


60 


65 


2,360 


1,950 


1,900 


56 


60 


57 


35,620 


35,110 


34,850 


65.3 


57.2 


74.7 


19,370 


14,100 


16,900 


41 


60 


52 


1,700 


1,800 


2,100 


186 


175 


156 


490 


400 


250 


52 


60 


75 


7,910 


7,200 


7,900 


80 


52 


64 


510 


250 


300 


70 


60 


75 


16,530 


15,600 


17,000 


47 


45 


50 


6,610 


7,300 


7,700 


78 


70 


68 


53,120 


46,650 


52,150 


58.5 


59.7 


60.0 


2,840 


3,230 


3,320 


196 


160 


164 


4,480 


5,200 


5,000 


57 


45 


45 


4,910 


6,200 


6,700 


52 


50 


65 


1,160 


1,100 


1,300 


45 


50 


45 


6,870 


7,700 


8,900 


55 


55 


60 


7,540 


8,100 


7,900 


67 


55 


60 


12,110 


9,000 


13,500 


38 


60 


35 


3,710 


3,400 


4,000 


83 


100 


70 


1,620 


400 


900 


32 


60 


45 


45,240 


44,330 


51,520 


62.5 


65.2 


59.5 


2,560 


3,100 


4,000 


67 


80 


80 


1,640 


800 


900 


54 


60 


75 


9,380 


11,600 


13,000 


63 


40 


105 


3,600 


3,900 


4,300 


75 


80 


85 


Q son 






01 


i O 


on 


10,920 


13,400 


12,200 


66 


78 


85 


3,810 


4,800 


4,800 


68 


70 


85 


1,240 


1,400 


1,300 


63 


60 


65 


7,660 


7,700 


7,500 


71 


78 


71 


1,820 


2,500 


3,000 


49 


80 


70 


46,450 


53,700 


55,900 


66.1 


68.5 


86.4 


180,430 


179,790 


194,420 


62.8 


63.2 


70.1 



* Includes undetermined quantities Used for processing, 
t Crate (24 quarts) containing approximately 36 pounds. 



470 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 



tions, the strawberry plant being shallow-rooted with none 
too firm a hold on the soil. 

Under conditions where the market justifies the expense, 
dry soils made rich in organic content may be utilized through 
the installation of artificial irrigation. IMore than most fruits, 
the strawberry reflects insufficient moisture supply at the 
ripening stage in small individual fruits and reduced total 
yield. 

The strawberry blooms early. In sections where spring 
frosts are a factor, guard against loss by planting on areas 
insuring air drainage. Avoid wind-swept areas in the colder 
latitudes so that the plants may be protected in winter by a 
mantle of snow. 

2. Preparing the Field. Begin preparations at least one 
year in advance. A cultivated crop is usually best to pre- 
cede planting. It is important that this crop shall be kept 
clean so that the land may be free of weeds and grass before 
the strawberries are set. Land in sod harbors the white grub 
or larva of the May beetle, often seriously destructive. If 
grubs are present in large numbers, cultivated crops should 
be grown for two years before setting. Freshly cleared stump 
land often gives good results, if free from roots and sprouts. 
In the South, select land free from the root knot nematode or 
practice a three-year rotation of crops that are not subject to 
its attacks. 

]\Iake the soil rich. Stable manure is unexcelled for this 
purpose, but unless well rotted it should be applied to the 
preceding crop so that w^eeds may be killed. In many sec- 
tions it is practically impossible to secure manure. In other 
sections where it can be secured, the quality is often very 
poor and it is sometimes full of weed seeds. In such regions 
growers have practically discontinued its use and plan to 
plow under green manure crops instead. Bring the land to a 
high state of tilth before planting. 

3. Selecting Varieties. Plant varieties with a record of 
Kuccess in the region. Try others, no matter how well adver- 



SELECTING VARIETIES 



471 



tised or recommended, with care. Although the strawberry 
may be grown over wide areas under varying conditions, this 
is not generally true of its varieties. Results may differ within 
a radius of a few miles. Varieties with firm flesh must be 
selected if the market to be served necessitates shipment. 
Some varieties of good quality are poor plant makers and 
return low yields unless this fact is recognized by closer plant- 
ing than ordinary, and then the difference frequently cannot 
be entirely overcome. In some sections late varieties find the 
market in better condition than early or mid-season kinds, 




{V. S, D, A.) 

Fig. 180. The blossom at the left is perfect, possessing both stamens and 
pistils; the one at the right is pistillate or imperfect, having pistils only. 



which are subject to greater competition. Take account of 
these factors before making up the variety list. 

Keep in mind also that some varieties possess perfect 
flowers, including stamens and pistils; other varieties produce 
flowers with pistils only, or with stamens that are abortive 
(Fig. 180). The latter, planted by themselves and lacking 
pollination, fail to yield. If the first choice is a variety with 
imperfect flowers, select as second choice a perfect variety 
and plant it in every third or fourth row. There is evidence 
that some varieties with perfect flowers do better in unfa- 
vorable seasons if interplanted with others. 



472 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 



Some of the leading commercial varieties are listed under 
''General Information'^ at the close of the chapter. 

4. Determining Time of Planting. Plant in early spring 
in all except southern United States. With proper care, this 
insures a full crop the next year. August or fall planting is 
possible and common in some sections, but experience indi- 
cates that it is a desirable practice only under special condi- 
tions. Losses from dry weather after planting, or from the 
oncoming winter, are more severe. A full crop cannot be 




Fig. 181. Left, an old plant, undesirable for 
setting ; right, a young plant with vigorous root 
system, desirable for setting. 



expected the following season because the plants do not 
develop sufficiently before the cold weather to give a wide and 
well-filled row. Greater difficulty is experienced in keeping 
the plantation clean until full fruitage. 

Only well-grown plants with strong, fibrous root systems 
are worth planting (Figs. 181, 182). There is more difference 
between strawberry plants than the public seems to realize. 
Many taken from old beds and those from some nurseries are 
not worth setting. Use plants which developed the previous 
season, unless planting in late summer or fall, when plants 
of the current season^s growth are preferable. Older plants 



DETERMINING THE PLANTING SYSTEM 473 



are lacking in vigor and do not freely develop runners and 
new plants. 

5. Determining the Planting System. The matted row 
is the prevailing planting system in the Eastern states for 
commercial purposes. In it hand labor is reduced to the 
minimum. Runners are permitted to develop from the mother 




(17. s, D. A.) 

Fig. 182. Good plants of different varieties 
jshowing differences in root growth and size. 
Klondike at left, Dunlop at right. 



plants at will so that by the end of the season a solid row 
from 1 to 2 feet wide, or sometimes more, has formed (Figs. 
183, 184). Rows 4 feet apart with plants 15 to 24 inches 
apart in the row represent average practice, variations there- 
from being determined by local conditions and experience. A 
sparse plant maker like Chesapeake should be planted more 
closely than a profuse plant maker like Aroma. Gandy is 



474 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 



planted from 18 to 24 inches apart in the row, whereas CatskiU 
is usually spaced 40 inches. 

A space between rows should be retained in which the 
pickers may walk. There is danger also of having the rows 
so wide that ripe berries in the centers are overlooked. By 
having the pickers pick from each side to the center of the row 

this difficulty is reduced but 
not entirely eliminated, since 
workers will not reach in to 
pick the centers as carefully 
as where the rows are 
narrow. 

In dry seasons, owing to 
the competition between 
plants for moisture, the ber- 
ries may run small. On the 
other hand, under this sys- 
tem a full stand is almost 
certain) for, although some 
mother plants may be lost 
and the last runners to de- 
velop may kill out, there are 
sufficient remaining to give 
an even stand. The total 
yield over a period of years 
will be greater under the 
matted row system than any 
other. 

Modifications of this sys- 
tem are known as hedge 
rows. The new plants are spaced according to a definite plan 
and extra runners and plants are removed. Good results may 
be obtained, but the amount o^ hand labor is increased. 

The hill system is used extensively in Oregon, Washington, 
and the far South. It is used to some extent in all sections for 
the home garden. Plants are spaced 12 to 15 inches apart in 




Fig. 183. The beginning of the 
matted row; mother plants in the 
center. The soil must be kept loose 
60 that the runner plants may root 
readily. See Fig. 184. 



SETTING THE PLANTS 



475 



all directions, or a greater distance may be allowed between 
rows on areas large enough to permit horse cultivation. All 
runners are removed, and the mother plants make a very 
vigorous development, reflected in a crop of uniformly large 
fruit. This system of planting is well adapted to the pro- 




FiG. 184. The matted row system fully developed. 

duction of fruit for a fancy trade. Considerable attention 
is required the first season to restrict the runners. If the 
mother plants die, vacant spaces occur in the row. 

6. Setting the Plants. After the location of the first or 
outside row has been determined, use markers, either hand 
or horse drawn, depending upon the area, to complete laying 
out the field. Such markers are quickly made — a horizontal 



476 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 



piece with holes bored at proper distances to take the legs or 
markers, a pair of shafts for the horse or mule, and some 
handles extending behind so that the operator may keep the 
implement steady. Extra holes may be bored in the bed piece 
and the legs made removable to permit changing the distances. 
The persons who do the planting gage distances between plants 




{V. s. D. A.) 



Fig. 185. If the plants must be held before set- 
ting open the bundle, spread the plants singly 
along the side of the trench, and throw the 
soil back, pressing it firmly against the roots. 

in the row accurately, and usually cross-marking is not 
necessary. 

Set the plants firmly, at the proper depth and when the 
soil is moist. Any planting method that takes account of 
these factors will give good results. It follows, therefore, that 
the plan which safeguards the situation in these respects and 
which is most economical under the conditions that must be 
met is the plan to adopt. 

Set the crown at ground level. Below ground level it is 
likely to smother and growth will certainly be retarded; above 



SETTING THE PLANTS 



477 



ground level, the roots are exposed and will either die or be 
seriously injured (Fig. 186). 

Remove a few of the outer and older leaves before plant- 
ing if this has not already been done. Such leaves will have 
been removed from nursery plants before shipment. If the 
grower obtains his plants from a bed or field, he should 
remove these leaves as the plants are dug. If the roots are 
long and straggling, clip slightly to aid in planting. 

With its root system of many fibers, it is easy to set the 
plant loosely even when intentions are the best. A circular 




(17. D. A.) 



Fig. 186. The plant at the left has not been set deeply enough, the 
entire crown and the top of the root system are exposed; the center 
plant has been set at the proper depth ; the plant at the right has been 

set at too great a depth. 

hole such as is made by a round dibble (Fig. 187) does not 
permit shaking and spreading the roots but crowds them to- 
gether, resulting in a minimum of contact with the soil. Plants 
thus set may live in a good season, but if it is dry after plant- 
ing, the chances are against them. In any event they will not 
make the development that may be expected from plants 
properly set. 

The flat and pointed trowel of various designs is a good 
planting tool (Fig. 187) . Press it into the soil to the desired 
depth, work it back and forth, withdraw, insert the plant, 
shaking the roots apart in a fan shape, and press firmly in 
place. Two men or a man and boy will do this better than one 



478 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 




person. It is well to have a boy carry a bucket full of plants, 
keeping the roots wet and dropping them just as needed. A 
variation of the method is for the person who carries the 
plants to press the soil about them with his foot after they 

are in place. 

The spade is widely 
used instead of the trowel, 
as it saves some bending 
over. The procedure is the 
same and, under good con- 
ditions, makes rapid set- 
ting possible. 

Setting is sometimes 
done with a paddle, or with 
a punch and tongs used 
in sweet potato planting. 
Some growers prefer a 
short-handled hoelike tool. 

On level land, cabbage 
or tomato planters, skill- 
fully operated so as to set 
plants at the correct depth, 
have given satisfaction. 

A patent planter oper- 
ated by hand, which waters 
the plants if necessary at 
planting, is now on the 
market. Its introducers 
claim that it has given ex- 
cellent results and that it is 
much more rapid than hand planting. The fibrous root sys- 
tem of the strawberry makes it more difficult to set by me- 
chanical devices than a plant with a single large root. 

The operator must determine the method best suited to the 
circumstances. There is always the opportunity for the exer- 
cise of individual judgment. Whatever the planting method 




(F. S. D. A.) 

Fig. 187. Types of tools used in trans- 
planting. The two tools at the lower 
right make round holes, giving little 
opportunity to shake and spread out 
the roots when inserting them in the 
soil. 



MANAGING THE SOILi 



479 



pursued, remove all large leaves, and protect the roots care- 
fully from wind and sun. 

It is probable that starter or nutrient solutions now used 
in transplanting vegetables would aid in getting the plants off 
to a quick start. This should prove very important in ap- 
plication to strawberries since the early-formed runners are 
much more productive than those formed later in the season, 
AVatch for further announcements from the experiment stations. 

7. Managing the Soil, 

Procedure: 

(a) Cultivating the soil. 

(6) Fertilizing the plants. 

(c) Shall irrigation be practiced? 

(a) Cultivating the Soil. Cultivate frequently for best 
results. Not only does this keep down weeds and grass and 
conserve moisture, but the new plants formed on the runners 
establish themselves much more quickly in a loose soil than 
in one that is hard and baked. Do all cultivation possible by 
horse or tractor power. Most of it can be done this way if 
directions for treatment of the field previous to planting have 
been followed. The hand hoe, however, cannot be entirely 
discarded. A wheel hoe is useful, especially under the hill 
system of management. Rolling cutters on the cultivator 
help to limit the width of the matted rows. The plants, have 
shallow roots. The first cultivation may be deep, but later 
cultivations close to the plants must be shallow. Adjust the 
outer cultivator teeth with this in mind. In many regions, 
care is taken during the first summer while hoeing the bed to 
space the young plants at regular intervals so that uniform 
matted rows are obtained. 

Cultivate up to late fall to discourage the weeds that 
appear even late in the season and to keep the plants growing. 

Remove the first blossom stalks, as the formation of fruit 
soon after setting taxes the vitality of the plant severely. 



480 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 



After the field is well established, it is not worth while to 
attempt to remove the relatively few blossoms that appear. 

(6) Fertilizing the Plants. Stable manure, when it can be 
secured at a reasonable price and when it does not contain 
too many weed seeds, is a very valuable fertilizer. From 15 
to 20 tons per acre should be applied, preferably to a preced- 
ing cultivated crop. Where stable manure cannot be obtained 
or where its use is questionable, green manure crops should 
always be turned under before planting strawberries. Rye, 
cowpeas, soy beans, and the clovers are good green manure 
crops. The decaying organic matter of the stable manure and 
green manure not only adds humus and plant food but also 
improves the mechanical condition and moisture-holding 
capacity of the soil. These last two factors are especially 
important in strawberry growing. 

In addition to the stable or green manures, it has generally 
been found profitable to add liberal amounts of commercial 
fertilizers in most growing regions. 

Of the three fertilizer elements usually applied — nitrogen, 
phosphorus, and potassium — the addition of phosphorus has 
seemed to be needed in most regions more than the other ele- 
ments. The need of additional nitrogen in some regions is 
marked; in others no value can be seen from applying this 
material, or, at least, its use in view of its cost and the cost 
of application of the material is questionable. The value of 
applying potash in many regions is very questionable. The 
need for its application has not been as clearly shown as for 
phosphorus and nitrogen, except on the lighter soils of the 
South. 

During the first year, phosphoric acid and some nitrogen 
seem especially desirable for causing good growth, numerous 
plants, and strong healthy crowns. Potash in addition may be 
of value in light, sandy soils. An application of a quickly 
available nitrogen fertilizer, just before blossoming in the 
crop year, appears to be profitable in increasing the set of 
fruit and size of berries in light soils, but its use is question- 



MANAGING THE SOIL 



481 



able on the heavier soils. Wherever this quickly available 
nitrogen is used, certain detrimental results may occur, if 
applications are too heavy and especially if the early season is 
wet. Thus, too vigorous a growth of stems and leaves may 
occur, delaying the ripening of the crop and causing the 
berries to be soft and green. 
Such fruit carries very 
poorly if it is shipped long 
distances to market. 

When the practices of 
the best growers and recent 
experiment-station investi- 
gations are studied, it ap- 
pears that, after provision 
is made for incorporating 
organic matter in the soil, 
fertilizers are often applied 
at three different times. 
These periods vary with 
the different regions. Fer- 
tilizers may be applied: 

(a) at time of planting; 

(b) during the first sum- 
mer; and (c) just prior to 

blossoming in the fruiting 

T . Fig. 188. Applying fertilizer during the 

season. In some regions, „ . ^i, t 

to 7 growing season. After the application, 

growers make only appll- ^ sack is dragged over the row to brush 
cation (a) , in others, (a) the fertilizer from the foliage, 
and (c), and in some sec- 
tions all three. A total application of 1000 to 2000 pounds per 
acre is customary. Consult the findings of the local experi- 
ment station and study the practices of the better growers. 

Some fertilizers, as nitrate of soda and muriate of potash, 
are caustic and should not be put in actual contact with the 
plants, unless the plants are dormant at the time of applica- 
tion. It is customary to apply fertilizers by hand (Fig. 188). 




482 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 



Strawberries seem to prefer an acid soil for best growth 
and production. Ordinarily, therefore, the addition of lime 
would be detrimental. However, different growers and inves- 
tigators have found that strawberries are sometimes benefited 
by the addition of some lime on soils which are very acid. In 
other words, extreme acidity may sometimes be reduced, but 
the soil should still be left in an acid condition for the best 
results. 

(c) Shall irrigation be practiced? In some of the com- 
mercial sections of the Far West the strawberry is grown 
commonly under irrigation. Frequently it is an intercrop in 
irrigated orchards. 

Irrigated strawberry fields in the East are less common than 
on the Pacific Coast but are by no means unusual. Quite 
extensive irrigation projects occur in southern New Jersey, 
and small installations are generally distributed throughout 
the Northern states. Their use seems to be increasing. 

The strawberry plant with its shallow root system is quickly 
affected by lack of moisture in the upper soil. The lighter 
soil types, on which this fruit is commonly grown, are natu- 
rally affected by drought more quickly than the heavier loams. 
Very frequently there is a lack of moisture at harvest time, 
especially for the pickings toward the end of the season. This 
causes the fruit to run small and materially reduces the yield. 
In extreme cases the entire crop, representing a year's invest- 
ment, may be ruined. The strawberry may suffer from lack 
of moisture at times other than the harvest season, limiting 
the formation of new plants and causing a poor stand in the 
rows. 

In sections where the natural rainfall is sufficient in normal 
seasons, the use of irrigation is questionable. If the land 
may be used in rotation for growing other crops which give a 
high return per acre, and which also benefit from irrigation, 
such as truck and garden crops, then the argument for irriga- 
tion is strengthened. 

If the grower possesses a market for large fancy fruit at 



CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 483 



an advance over current quotations, irrigation may be a profit- 
able practice. 

In any case, irrigation should not be made a substitute for 
thorough, intensive tillage. Only the best-grown fields are 
likely to justify the added investment. 

In the West the furrow system is common. In the East, 
the overhead system is commonly employed; it calls for much 
the greater investment in pipes, fittings, etc. The furrow sys- 
tem cannot be used on steep and irregular lands and functions 




{W. F. Allen Go.) 

Fig. 189. A field of Dorset grown in Maryland by the matted row 

system. 



best on rather heavy soils not subject to washing. In either 
system an accessible and ample water supply is a necessity. 

Irrigation is usually practiced after each picking unless the 
natural moisture supply is adequate. The heavier applications 
are made late in the season when the fruit naturally begins 
to run small. Applications may be advisable at other times 
throughout the growing season, especially for everbearing 
varieties. 

8. Controlling Insects and Diseases. Since strawberries 
occupy the land for short periods, in many cases only one crop 



484 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 



being harvested, it is natural that control measures should turn 
as far as possible on clean tillage and crop rotation. The 
disease and insect problem is therefore not likely to become 
as serious a factor as in fruit plantations that occupy the 
.same ground for years. 

Follow the control program of the local experimental sta- 



{Mo. Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 190. A field of strawberries mulched with 
clean straw. 

tion, the United States Department of Agriculture, and the 
methods of experienced growers. 

9. Protecting the Plants in Winter. Mulching the rows in 
cold weather is good practice where material is available 
(Fig. 190). Do it as soon as possible after the ground first 
freezes in the fall. The purpose is not to shield the plants 
from cold, but to reduce to a minimum alternate freezing and 
thawing of the soil, which loosens the roots. 



HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE CROP 485 



Mulching is most necessary in wind-swept locations, or on 
heavy soils, or in latitudes where the snowfall is light and 
where freezing of the soil followed by warm days is a frequent 
occurrence. By delaying slightly the removal of the mulch 
in the spring, blossoming may be retarded in sections where 
frosts are a factor. 

Any material free from seeds that does not mat down too 
closely and yet that is not too coarse to defeat its purpose 
will do. The choice will be determined by availability and 
cost. Marsh or swale grass, straw, coarse manure, and pine 
needles are all serviceable. Cornstalks are rather coarse but 
help to hold the snow and are of value. The beginner is 
likely to apply a heavier mulch than is necessary. A depth of 
2 to 3 inches of the loose material is sufficient. 

Rake or fork off the mulch after freezing of the ground 
is no longer a factor in the spring and in any case before the 
leaves turn yellow. Much of the material will have settled 
about the crowns. Leave as much of this as possible to keep 
the soil moist and to prevent muddy and soiled berries at 
picking time. That which is raked off may remain between 
the rows, or, if such material is scarce, it may be hauled off 
and stored for use another year. 

Oats or barley, sown in late summer between the rows, 
may contribute a partial mulch, as they go down with the 
first frost. However, it is possible that the loss through dis- 
continuing cultivation at so early a date is greater than the 
gain from the mulch. 

10. Harvesting and Marketing the Crop. The second sea- 
son brings the main harvest, if the field was set the spring of 
the preceding year. Thus plants set in March or April one 
year will fruit heaviest in May or June of the next year. 
Ordinarily, no cultivation is given the second spring until after 
harvest. Weeds and grass may be pulled or hoed out, but if 
thorough tillage was given during the preceding season there 
will be little trouble on this score. 

The quart basket and the 24- or 32-quart crate are com- 



486 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 



monly used. Attractive paper-board quart boxes waxed and 
lithographed, with slits in the sides for ventilation, are now 
available. Pint baskets are also used to a limited extent. 

No general directions as to stage of maturity for picking 
can be given; it depends on the variety and the distance to 
market. A variety should seldom be picked with the tips still 
green. Soft-fleshed varieties must be picked while still firm, 




(T7. F. Allen Co,) 

Fig. 191. The promise of a good crop. The row is full of strong plants, 
and the plants are full of blossoms. 



unless for local consumption. Pick the fruit as soon as it is 
dry in the early part of the day and at as cool a temperature 
as possible. It should be marketed, or sent on its way to 
market, the same day. For local market some growers have 
found it best to pick in the afternoon, keep the berries in a 
cool place over night, and deliver early in the morning. 

Pinch the stem rather than the fruit, and leave the hulls on 
the berries. Pickers should be equipped with carriers holding 



HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE CROP 



487 



four to six baskets. Handle the fruit as little as possible and 
keep it out of the sun. For these reasons also, larger carriers 
should not be used. For some trades it will pay to face the 
baskets, turning the berries on their sides with as little of the 




{G. M. Darrowj Fruits and Gardem, June, 1928) 



Pig. 192. '^A fruit cluster showing the relative 
size of berries borne in different positions on a 
cluster. The primary berry at A ripens first and 
is the largest; the secondary berries at B ripen 
second and are next in size ; the tertiary berries 
at C are much smaller than the secondary while 
the quaternary berries at D are still smaller. 
Because the berries on any cluster are progres- 
sively smaller, the later berries to ripen are the 
smallest and the crop is said to 'run down' iu 
size." 

hull showing as possible. Remove all soiled berries and 
'^nubbins^' or undersized fruit from the first grade. Fill the 
baskets well above the tops to allow for settling, especially 
when shipping to market. Ventilated or iced cars will be 



488 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 



necessary, depending upon the time in transit. The crates 
must be well braced and arranged to permit free air circu- 
lation. 

Shipments in less than carlots to distant markets are made 
from the West and South in hea\y refrigerator boxes holding 
64 to 80 quarts. These are known as pony refrigerators and 
are returned to the shipper. The ice compartments are filled 
before shipping. 

The strawberry may be held for a short time in cold storage 
— apparently as long as a week or ten days if only firm berries 




(TT. F. Allen Co.) 



Fig. 193. This crate of berries will sell at the top price in any market. 

are used, and if they are rushed to storage immediately after 
picking. The proper holding temperature is 30° to 32° F. The 
holding time is not long, but it may carry the fruit past a 
glutted market. 

For use by preserv^ers, as crushed fruit and syrups for soda 
fountains, the uncooked berries, hulled, washed, and treated 
with sugar, are held in casks in cold storage at a temperature 
of 30° F. or lower. Consult 'Trozen Fruit," page 148, for 
further information on modern methods of freezing. 

Yields, • Yields of fruit vary greatly, depending on the 



TREATMENT OF PLANTATION AFTER HARVEST 489 



general vigor of the plantation, the variety, and the season, 
including possible losses from frost injury at blossoming time 
and the supply of moisture. A production of 100 crates or 
3200 quarts per acre in New York is too low on the average 
for a profit. However, in many other regions with cheaper 
labor costs a profit can be made on this yield. Consult 
Table 49, page 469, for average yields in the various sections. 
The successful grower must secure yields substantially higher 
than these. Many growers secure 5000 to 6000 quarts per 




{W. F. Allen Co.) 

Fig. 194. A field stand in Maryland. The picked fruit must be kept 

out of the sun. 



acre; and much higher yields, especially under irrigation, are 
frequently obtained. 

11. Determining Treatment of Plantation after Harvest. 

The grower must decide whether he will pick more than one 
crop from his planting. The answer calls for individual judg- 
ment based on known facts. The investment in plants and 
planting has already been made. If the field is reasonably free 
from grass and weeds and if the plants are strong, the planta- 
tion may be retained for another season, or possibly more. 
The procedure follows: After picking, mow off the tops of the 
plants; rake the refuse into winrows, and remove it. If not 
abundant, the refuse may be raked between the rows and 



490 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 



plowed under. If the field has been affected with leaf spot 
or other fungus troubles, the material may be burned on 
the field in a stiff wind so that the fire travels quickly down 
the rows. Do not attempt to burn the material when the 
soil is excessively dry or when the leaves are damp, as injury 
to the plants will follow. 

Plow back the sides of the rows to leave strips 10 to 15 
inches wide, depending upon the freedom with which the 




Fig. 195. A common scene in strawberry season in southern producing 
sections. The grower brings his offering to an auction shed where the 
fruit is inspected and buyers bid for it. 



variety forms new plants. By plowing one side of the row 
only, back to and beyond the original mother plants, the strip 
remaining will be composed of young and vigorous plants. 

Finish with cultivator, smoothing harrow, and hand hoe, 
thinning the plants rather severely but allowing more to remain 
than in the original planting, since runners will not form so 
freely as in the first year. An application of well-rotted stable 
manure or of high-grade commercial fertilizer should be made 



GENERAL INFORMATION 



491 



at this time. Some growers simply work up the ground be- 
tween the rows and then thin out the plants. 

In many parts of the South the old bed is plowed under 
immediately after picking, and a crop of cow peas is grown and 
plowed under in late July. Rye or crimson clover is then 
seeded, and this is plowed under before planting to straw- 
berries again the following spring. Thus, two crops of green 
manure are plowed under before replanting the field to straw- 
berries. If chickweed is abundant, the rye or clover crop is not 
grown, but the ground is kept cultivated through the late sum- 
mer and fall to eradicate this troublesome weed. 

GENERAL INFORMATION 

1. Everbearing Varieties 

Everbearing varieties are now well known. The term is somewhat 
misleading but is in common use. Such varieties bear at the usual time, 
followed by a period of low production or absolute cessation of produc- 
tion. In late August and throughout the fall, another crop follows, if 
growing conditions are favorable. 

It should be kept in mind that many varieties of strawberries, given 
exactly the right conditions of soil and climate, may produce late in the 
season without warranting designation as everbearing varieties. 

Everbearing varieties as a rule need a very fertile soil to give them 
size and to provide their rather exacting moisture requirements. Plant- 
ing may be according to the hill or matted row systems, depending 
largely upon the freedom with which the varieties form runners. Gen- 
eral culture is as indicated for ordinary kinds. The first flower stems 
should be removed if practicable. The best berries will be obtained 
the first fall, and many fields are kept only one season. The second- 
season fruit is borne at the normal time, followed by a rest period and 
then by further bearing, but the fruit tends to be small, both as to size 
and total yield. 

It cannot be claimed that everbearing varieties are profitable for the 
general market. They have a place in the home garden, to meet a 
special or local demand, and for the sale of plants. They are especially 
valuable in the valleys of some Western states including Idaho, where 
late spring frosts often kill the blossoms of most varieties. In these 
valleys, the everbearing varieties are the chief kinds grown. Everbearing 
varieties well adapted to the far South have not been developed as yet. 



492 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 



Varieties 

Gem. Most consistent producer of summer and fall berries, recom- 
mended for a home garden. 

Champion {Progressive) . Sweetest everbearer, berries are small but 
the plants are productive. 

Green Mountain. Later berry, adapted to cool climate and heaA-y 
Boil. 

Mastodon. Vigorous productive plant; it is the most commonly- 
grown everbearing variety, fruit is large, irregular in shape, and ships 
weU. 

n. Commercial Vaeieties 

There are hundreds of varieties of strawberries. Many of them 
possess merit for certain purposes and in some sections. Included in the 
following list are those varieties which have assumed commercial im- 
portance in areas of greater or less extent, for general market use. It is 
not put forth as a complete list. Xew varieties appear and very rapidly 
come into prominence. The varieties that do well in Northern United 
States are, as a rule, adapted to Canada. Varieties have perfect flowers 
unless otherwise indicated. 

Aroma. The leading commercial variety in a belt extending east 
from ^Missouri to Kentucky. 

Belt {William Belt). Late variety, high quality, adapted to North- 
ern states. 

Big Joe. Fancy mid-season berr^^, especially large fruit, subject to 
frost injury, grown commerciallj^ in New Jersey and Delaware and to 
a less extent in Northern L'nited States. 

Blakemore. One of the finest bemes of the South and as far north 
as Maryland and Virginia ; it has proved to be a good shipping variety — 
productive, light red, firm, tart flavored. 

Catskill. Standard variety in New England, New York, Ohio, and 
Pennsylvania. Vigorous, sturdy, hardy plant, good-quality fruit. It has 
been known to give higher yields than almost any other variety. 

Chesapeake. Late season, large berry of unusual quality, not highly 
productive, grown largely in Northeastern United States. 

Dorsett. A good early commercial strawberry, high quality, bright 
red fruit, large size and large cropper, grown chiefly in Northern states 
but popular as far south as Georgia. 

Dresden. A new earh^ berr^^ which is adapted to New England, New 
i^ork, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. 

Fairjax. Noted for its high-quality fruit, very large yields of large 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 



493 



berries, and firm berry, but its color darkens after it is picked; grown 
chiefly in Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, and in states farther north. 

Gandy. Delaware, Maryland, and much of Northern United States. 
Late berry which likes low ground or irrigation. 

Gibson {Parsons Beauty). Very productive, very good quality, an 
old berry which stands up well against many new varieties; grown 
chiefly in Michigan, Ohio, New York, and Ontario. 

Glen Mary (partially imperfect). New York, New England, Ontario, 
and other sections of Canada; highly productive but poor-quality fruit. 

Klondyke. Leading berry in parts of Gulf Coast and South Atlantic 
states. 

Lupton. Late shipping berry, poor flavor, grows well with heavy 
fertilization; grown largely ii^ New Jersey, Delaware, and eastern 
Maryland. 

Missionary. The standard market variety of central Florida; grown 
largely also in eastern North Carolina, the Norfolk Section of Vir- 
ginia, and eastern Maryland. 

New York. Grown under many synonyms, very sweet fruit; popular 
in Northeastern states. 

Premier (Howard). One of the leading varieties, especially in New 
England, south to Virginia and west to Illinois; early cropper, frost 
resistant, large yielder; even-sized, good-appearing fruit, of good quality 
and firm, but flavor is not so good as that of some varieties. 

Sample {imperfect) . New England and westward to Michigan and 
Illinois. 

Senator Dunlap. Northern half of area, east of Rocky Mountains; 
old variety, good quality, medium size. 

Wilson. Grown to a limited extent in western New York and in 
Oregon and Washington. 

COMMUNITY STUDIES 

1. Visit five or more of the leading growers of the community, in- 
cluding at least one grower selling at a roadside stand. 

Determine : 

a. Market served. 

b. Acreage. 

c. Location with respect to slope and site. 

d. Type of soil. 

e. Varieties, cost of plants, and source from which obtained. 



494 



GROWING STRAWBERRIES 



/. Treatment of field for two years before planting. 

g. Preparation of field for planting. 

h. Time of planting. 

i. System of planting used and number of plants per acre. 
Method of planting. 

h. Subsequent cultivation and care. 
Z. Harvesting plan — ^source of help. 
m. Costs of packages. 
n. Wages — day or piece rate; bonus. 
o. How fruit is delivered and costs of delivery, 
p. Average yields by varieties if possible. 
q. Average selling price for several years, 
r. Number of crops picked from one planting, 
s. Treatment of field after picking. 
t. Winter treatment. 

u. Fertilizers — kind, rate, cost, time and method of application. 

2. With the foregoing information, prepare an outline including all 
necessary operations, costs, yields, and net returns on a field sufficient: 
a. To supply the usual needs of a village of 2000 persons (deter- 
mine requirements from local growers and fruit merchants). 
h. To permit shipment of carlots of a single variety to the general 
market. 



I 



CHAPTER XIII 

GROWING GRAPES 

The American grape is grown over a wide range for home 
use. It is a commercial product as table fruit and for grape- 
juice and other by-products in several large but definitely 
limited areas in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan and 
in the Province of Ontario, Canada. It is also grown commer- 
cially in smaller local regions where conditions are satisfac- 
tory, in states west to Missouri and south to North Carolina 
and in the elevated sections of Georgia and Alabama. See/ 
Table 50. 

The term ''American grape'' refers to the native grape or 
its hybrids with the European. The European is the one 
grown in California, Vitis vinifera^ of which many varieties 
have been developed. There are many native species, but the 
wild fox grape, Vitis labrusca, is responsible either directly or 
through crossing with Vinifera for the grape as it is known in 
most of the country. In the warmer parts of the South, chiefly 
on the coastal plains, Muscadine grapes of species Rotundi- 
foUa, of several colors, with such varieties as Scuppernong, 
Thomas, and James, are mostly grown. 

The authors are not dealing with the California grape, since 
its culture represents a separate and highly specialized enter- 
prise in a restricted area. Culture of Muscadine grapes, so 
far as it differs from the Labrusca or bunch grapes, is indicated 
at the close of this chapter. 

Operations: 

1. Determining the size of the enterprise. 

2. Selecting the location. 

495 



496 GROWING GRAPES 

TABLE 50 

Graj^es, Ten Most Important States, Production,* 1937-39, 

IN Short Tons 



United States Department of Agriculture 



State 


1937 


1938 


1939 


Average 




89,100 


55,600 


75,600 


73,434 




67,200 


16,900 


58,100 


47,400 


Ohio 


37,800 


9,800 


42,800 


30,134 




26,000 


15,700 


23,200 


21,634 




12,300 


6,200 


12,500 


10,334 




12,800 


4,800 


8,200 


8,600 




8,600 


6,300 


8,800 


7,900 


North CaroUna 


8,100 


6,600 


7,500 


7,400 




5,000 


5,000 


5,800 


5,267 




2,454,000 


2,531,000 


2,173,000 


2,386,000 


Wine varieties 


641,000 


641,000 


548,000 


610,000 


Raisin varieties 


1,407,000 


1,443,000 


1,255,000 


1,035,000 


Dried t 


246,000 


290,000 


252,000 


162,967 


Not dried 


419,000 


283,000 


247,000 


316,667 


Table varieties 


416,000 


447,000 


370,000 


411,000 



♦For some states, in certain years, production includes some quantities unharvested on 
account of market conditions. 

t Dried basis: 1 ton of dried raisins equivalent to 4 tone of fresh grapes. 



3. Selecting the soil. 

4. Selecting varieties. 

5. Determining time of planting. 

6. Determining planting distances. 

7. Securing the plants. 

8. Setting the plants. 

9. Managing the soil. 

10. Training the vines. 

11. Controlling insects and diseases. 

12. Harvesting the crop. 

13. Marketing the crop. 

14. Protecting vines in winter. 



DETERMINING SIZE OF THE ENTERPRISE 497 

1. Determining Size of the Enterprise. Many of the fac- 
tors of importance here appear under the same heading in 




{Mo. Exp, Sta.) 

Fig. 196. A Missouri vineyard just prior to harvest. 



Chapter III on '^Establishing the Orchard/' The acreage 
must be large enough to carry the investment in special equip- 




FiG. 197. A western New York vineyard. The cover crop between the 

rows is buckwheat. 



ment and to attract buyers. Such equipment need not be ex- 
tensive, but a spray outfit, horse- or motor-operated, gang 
plows, and grape hoes will be needed. If the fruit enterprise is 



498 



GROWING GRAPES 



diversified, then some of this equipment may be used for other 
crops, reducing the overhead on the vineyard. Pickers are 
more easily secured for a sizable plantation, since longer em- 
ployment is provided, than for a small one. The problem 
cannot be resolved into a definite number of acres, but this 
matter should receive very careful attention at the outset. 

2. Selecting the Location. Select a location subject to the 
tempering infiuence of lake or river. The nature of such 
infiuence upon the growing season and the temperature range 
is well known. The grape seems especially responsive to it. 
Shallow streams or ponds have little effect, the depth of the 
water being an important consideration. The slope should be 
toward the water. Steep grades complicate cultural opera- 
tions and increase the cost thereof. 

Air drainage through and away from the vineyard is im- 
portant in the control of many diseases and reduces the danger 
from late spring and early fall frosts. 

In the southerly extensions of the industry the water in- 
fluence is not such an important factor, but air drainage is a 
primary consideration. 

3. Selecting the Soil. A good upland corn soil is well 
adapted to grapes. Light loams of all kinds, with good 
drainage, meet the requirements. Clay loams delay ripening of 
nearly all fruits and in them the drainage factor is of especial 
importance. Moderate fertility and moisture are necessary. 
Since the vineyard will, under the proper conditions, occupy 
the ground for years, it is not best to plant on naturally poor 
eoil. On the whole, well-drained, gravelly loams, which are 
friable and easy to work, and which v/arm up early in the 
spring, make excellent soils for the grape. On such soils, 
evenness of ripening, good yields, and grapes of good size, 
color, flavor, and high sugar content may be expected. 

The growing of a tilled crop during the year previous to 
planting is sound practice, since it tends to eliminate grass and 
puts the soil in good condition for planting. 



SELECTING VARIETIES 



499 



4. Selecting Varieties. Select varieties of established repu- 
tation and proved adaptability to the region. In a market 
grape, growers look for wide soil adaptation, hardiness of 
wood, heavy yields, evenness of ripening, freedom from crack- 
ing of berries, attractiveness of appearance, ability to stand 
handling and shipment, freedom from shelling after picking, 
and good quality. In all but the last two factors. Concord 
takes high rank. It does shell after picking, but its quality, 
though not superior, is good enough, when the fruit is well 
ripened, to suffice. It handles and ships fairly well, though 
leaving something to be desired in this regard. 

At the present time, build a list of varieties around Con- 
cord as the major sort, lengthening the season on both ends 
with other kinds as the growing conditions and outlet warrant. 

Sheridan, originated by the New York Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station at Geneva, should be watched as a possible 
successor to Concord. It is about ten days later than Con- 
cord. 

To precede Concord by about three weeks Fredonia is a 
good-quality black grape. It is vigorous, hardy, and produc- 
tive with large clusters of medium-sized fruit. Worden is a 
black variety of high quality which ripens earlier than Con- 
cord. The berries are large but very tender and may ripen 
unevenly. Worden does not ship well but is excellent for local 
trade. 

Niagara is the leading white variety. Although it is not so 
hardy as Concord, it may be just as vigorous and productive 
if it is grown under suitable conditions. It is more subject to 
disease. If properly ripened, Niagara is of excellent flavor. 

Portland deserves attention as an early white grape. The 
bunches are large, and the vines hardy and productive. 

Ontario is a golden yellow grape of high quality. The clus- 
ters are of medium size and very attractive. 

Catawba is the standard red grape. It must be grown 
where the season is long enough to mature it properly. The 



500 



GROWING GRAPES 



foliage and fruit are susceptible to disease. Catawba will keep 
well. It makes a high-grade, light-colored wine. 

Keuka is a red grape which ripens one week earlier than 
Catawba. It has a very good flavor and is a new variety of the 
European type. Urbana, red, is a good grape but a little later 
than Catawba and for that reason its planting districts are 
limited. Delaware is a very high-quality American table 
grape. The berries are very small. The plants grow slowly 
and should be planted closely. The high quality of this grape 
makes it useful for wine making and champagne blending. 
It grows fairly well if planted in rich soil. 

Recently the introduction of European types and seedless 
kinds has changed the list of grape varieties for home vine- 
yards and roadside markets. It takes many years, however, 
to revise the list of standard commercial varieties of any 
fruit which has as long a life as the American grape. 

Consult the local experiment station before making a final 
selection of varieties either for market or home use. 

5. Determining Time of Planting. Plant in the spring in 
the northern regions of commercial production. Elsewhere, 
plant in the fall or spring at the grower^s option. It is im- 
portant, as in all fruits, that the plants should be in the ground 
early while spring rains are still abundant. 

6. Determining Planting Distances. Strong growing vari- 
erties on fertile soil need 10 feet of space both in and between 
the rows. This is not too much for Concord grown under 
favorable conditions. Set less thrifty varieties 8 feet apart in 
the rows, or some, as Delaware, even closer, but the space 
between rows should always permit free use of implements, 
including tractors. Even though carefully trained, the trunks 
of some of the vines, when mature, will arch in such manner 
as to lessen materially the available tillage space. At 10 feet 
each way 435 plants per acre will be required. 

7. Securing the Plants. Grapes may be grown from cut- 
tings, or from layers, as described in Chapter VII, 'Propaga- 
tion.^' The commercial grower, however, will usually prefer 



SECURING THE PLANTS 



501 



to secure his plants from the nurseryman who is a speciahst, 
and who probably will produce better plants on the average 
than the grower. Use 
well-rooted one-year 
plants (Fig. 198). 

On arrival of the 
plants from a nursery 
open the bundles and 
heel them in carefully 
until ready to set in the 
field. 

8. Setting the Plants. 

Grapes should be set on 
tilled land, preferably 
that which has grown a 
cultivated crop the year 
previous to planting so 
that grass and weed Fig. 198. A good one-year vine. It 
growth has been de- should be pruned at a-b when planted, 
stroyed in large measure. 

The land should be plowed and worked deeply so that hand 
labor in setting may be reduced to a minimum. 

Procedure: 

(a) Determining arrangement of the rows. 
(6) Marking out rows, 
(c) Setting the plants. 

(a) Determining Arrangement of the Rows. Run the 
rows north and south if the dimensions of the field permit, to 
distribute the sunshine to both sides. If prevailing winds 
are strong, it is best to avoid running the rows at right angles 
to them, since much damage may be done to young shoots and 
fruit-bearing canes. However, greater damage usually comes 
from sharp squalls in connection with sudden storms than from 
steady breezes from a certain quarter. 




502 



GROWING GRAPES 



If the location is steep and uneven, then the contour of the 
ground must be followed, but it is a serious question whether 
vineyards in the future should be planted on such fields, where 
the cost of every operation is greatly increased. 

Many persons get their impressions of American grape 
growing, or viticulture, from pictures of the steep, vineclad 
slopes of the Ptiver Rhine. AVe are dealing here, however, with 
an extensive method of management, where labor costs are at a 
maximum, and the efficient use of machines is indispensable 
to a high measure of success. 

In large plantings, provide driveways at convenient inter- 
vals across the field so that it is not necessary to go to the end 
of the rows to take out a load of fruit or to refill the spray tank. 
Headlands adequate for turning beyond the end posts are 
necessary. 

(6) Marking out Rows, Turn right angles where necessary 
as indicated in the chapter, '^Establishing the Orchard." Plow 
out the rows the long way of the field, setting enough stakes 
for the driver to use in sighting. The cross-rows may also be 
plowed, or located with a marker, or a light stick of the proper 
length may be carried from vine to vine as planting progresses. 
Reasonably straight cross-rows are desirable because they 
make possible cultivation both ways until the trellis is up. 
They will not be obtained on large areas unless marked out 
in advance of planting. 

Crooked rows with vines out of place are a great nuisance 
in all tillage operations. Exposed vines are sure to be torn 
out or seriously injured by tillage implements. It is a con- 
tinual game of hide and seek to avoid them. The wires of 
the trellis cannot be properly tightened, and the net loss of 
eflSciency is considerable. 

(c) Setting the Plants. Plant in gangs of two persons. 
One of these may be a boy or girl, since the work is not heavy 
if the rows have been plowed out. Carry the plants with the 
roots immersed in a pail of water or covered with a blanket. 
The hole may be quickly finished with a shovel by one member 



MANAGING THE SOIL 



503 



of the gang. The other member prunes the top to two or three 
buds and cuts back straggling roots. He then shakes the vine 
to spread the root system, presses it against the bottom of the 
hole, and packs the soil as it is shoveled in. The whole opera- 
tion may be done more quickly than it can be described. 

If the rows have not been plowed, extra men must go ahead 
to dig the holes or the work must be done as the vines are set. 

The more careful the preparation of the field by plowing 
and harrowing, the more rapidly will the planting operation 
go forward. The best cultivation that may be given any crop 
the first year is that which occurs, if the grower is wise, before 
the crop goes into the ground. 

9. Managing the Soil. Thorough cultivation is the pass- 
word to success after planting. The grape comes into leaf late 
in the spring. It develops a tremendous foliage in a very short 
period, in addition to producing the crop. The need of favor- 
able growth conditions is apparent. Grape roots are relatively 
close to the surface. Moisture must be abundant and the soil 
in excellent physical condition. All this calls for frequent and 
thorough tillage. 

Procedure: 

(a) Cultivating the soil. 
(6) Growing intercrops. 

(c) Growing cover crops. 

(d) Fertilizing the vines. 

V 

(a) Cultivating the Soil. In early spring, before the buds 
have started, plow away from the rows in order that oppor- 
tunity may be given to clean the ground thoroughly beneath 
the vines. The three-gang vineyard plow (Fig. 199) meets 
the requirements. It should be run no deeper than is necessary 
to turn the furrow — from 3 to 4 inches. For the first two or 
three years, deeper plowing is permissible in an endeavor to 
force the vines to root more deeply, though how much is ac- 
complished in this direction is debatable. On light soils fiee 



504 GROWING GRAPES 

from stones, the disk harrow may be substituted for the gang 
plow, but the plow meets with greater favor for most con- 
ditions. 

After plowing, cultivate thoroughly with the harrow. Fin- 
ish next to the vines with the grape hoe, and even wdth the 
hand hoe. The grape or horse hoe, or ^^take out" (Fig. 200) , 
is a tool which means much in the saving of time and in finish- 
ing cultivation well about the vines. Once the art of its 

manipulation is mastered, 
it becomes the grower's best 
friend. 

Through the summer, 
work the soil gradually 
back toward the rows until 
the ground is level, using 
the spring-tooth and disk 
harrows set at shallow 
depth. If drainage is a 
factor, ridge the soil in the 
rows slightly at the last cul- 
tivation, using the attach- 
ment on the grape hoe to 
do this. As part of the 
final cultivation, the gang 
plow may again be used, 
this time throwing the soil 
toward the vines. In the young vineyard, cultivation may 
continue to August 15 or even later, but in the bearing vine- 
yard tillage should cease from July 15 to 30, depending on 
the season and the crop. If the season is dry and the crop 
large, prolong cultivation to conserve the moisture. If mois- 
ture is abundant, discontinue cultivation to induce maturing 
of wood and fruit. It is essential that the wood shall go into 
winter well ripened; otherwise injury from freezing, with its 
unfavorable effect on crop prospects of the following year, is 
likely to occur. 




Fig. 199. The vineyard gang plow is 

a very useful implement in grape 
growing. It should usually turn a 
furrow from 3 to 4 inches deep. 
Tractor gangs may be used on level 
ground. 



MANAGING THE SOIL 



505 



(b) Growing Intercrops. Intercrops that require cultiva- 
tion have a place in the vineyard during the first season. Select 
the one that fits best in the rotation and the system of farm 
management. It may well be field or sweet corn, beans, or 
some of the garden crops. Perhaps the best feature of the 
intercrop is that it makes probable more thorough cultivation 
of the vineyard than would otherwise be given. It should be 
recognized, however, that, 
from the standpoint of the 
vineyard itself, its cultiva- 
tion through the cultiva- 
tion of intercrops is an 
expensive way to get the 
job done. The income from 
the crop may not make up 
the difference in cost, to 
say nothing of giving a 
profit. The grower must 
decide which, for his con- 
ditions, is the better way. 

(c) Growing Cover 
Crops. Many vineyards are 
productive thirty or forty 
years from planting, and a 
life in excess of sixty years 
is not uncommon. This is 
a long time for the effects of intensive tillage to accumulate. 
One of these effects is the gradual exhaustion of the supply 
of organic matter. The soil '^burns out,'' creating an unfavor- 
able medium for crop production. This occurs eventually 
even with the best of soils, unless remedial measures are 
employed. 

Manure may be applied where available, as indicated under 
fertilizers. Cover crops can be grown to help keep the soil 
loose and friable. 




Fig. 200. The grape hoe may be 
thrown toward or away from the vines 
quickly by manipulating the left 
handle. The shovel on the right may 
be reversed to throw the soil toward 
the vines. A spring-tooth attachment 
between the disk and the shovel is 
also available. 



506 



GROWING GRAPES 




Fig. 201. The tractor and spring-tooth harrow 
make a good combination for tillage where the 
land is not too steep for the tractor. 




(Caterpillar Tractor Oo.) 

Fig. 202. A tractor pulling a Killefer disk and leveling harrow in a 

California vineyard. 



MANAGING THE SOIL 



507 



Conditions differ from those in orchards. For the vineyard 
the cover crop must grow quickly and preferably lodge or fall 
of its own weight before picking time, and it must not grow 
high enough to reduce seriously air movement about the fruit. 
Such a reduction encourages the development of fungus dis- 
eases and delays the maturing of the fruit. 

A crop that lives over winter has some obvious advantages, 
but it must be one that can be turned under or w^orked in by 
shallow plowing and cultivation. One difficulty with rye is 
that it grows so rapidly in the spring that it may get out of 
bounds in this regard. 

Soy beans, sown in middle July, have given excellent results 
in some New York vineyards. Buckwheat (Fig. 197) , oats, rye, 
winter vetch, and millet are worth consideration. The clovers 
often will not catch in a dry season, the time is too short for a 
good stand, and the seed cost is high. A mixture of 1 bushel of 
rye and 20 pounds of vetch is often used and is satisfactory if 
plowed under early in the spring. 

Broadcasting by hand or with a cyclone seeder insures com- 
plete coverage, but if the cover crop is one that lives over 
winter, it will be easier to turn it under at the proper time if 
seeded with a drill, keeping a foot or so away from the rows. 
If the crop does not go down of its own accord at harvest, drag 
or roll it down while wet to get it out of the way of the 
pickers. 

An auxiliary effect of the cover crop that is often important 
is its influence in hastening maturity of vine and fruit through 
cutting down on the supply of moisture available to the vines. 
It also reduces erosion of the soil on slopes and uneven ground, 

(d) Fertilizing the Vines. Fertilizers should be applied 
when sufficient vine growth and fruit production are not secured 
without them. In many of the commercial grape regions of 
the northeastern United States, satisfactory vine growth and 
production are secured, especially on the heavier and more 
fertile soils, without the addition of commercial fertilizers or 
manure. On the lighter, sandy, or gravelly soils, profitable re- 



508 



GROWING GRAPES 



turns will usually be secured, however, from the addition of 
either or both of these materials. 

Factors such as good air drainage (freedom from frosts), 
soil drainage, proper pruning, thorough cultivation, the addi- 
tion of organic matter, the control of insects and diseases, soil 
temperature and aeration, and winter injury exert a marked 
influence upon vine growth and fruit production. If proper 
attention has been given to all these factors, and the vineyard 
still makes an unsatisfactory growi:h with resultant low fruit 
production, fertilizers should be added. 

In many vineyards nitrogen seems to be the fertilizing ele- 
ment most often needed. A review of experiment station 
recommendations and of experimental evidence shows that in 
the Northern states, if satisfactory growth and yields are not 
secured, although good vineyard management is practiced, 
then applications of nitrogenous fertilizers will usually be 
beneficial. 

In such cases, annual applications of 5 to 10 tons of barn- 
yard manure per acre should produce good results. If manure 
is not available, about 300 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda 
should also produce good results, but under conditions where 
vine growth is very weak it will often pay to apply 400 to 500 
pounds of nitrate of soda per acre. 

In the lighter soils of the South and in some of the northern 
vineyards, a profitable response is apparently secured by ap- 
plying phosphoric acid and potash as well as nitrogen. Under 
such conditions applications of 800 to 1000 pounds of acid 
phosphate and 200 to 300 pounds of muriate of potash in addi- 
tion to the nitrogen should be made. It is possible, however, 
that too frequent and too liberal applications of manure and 
nitrogenous fertilizers might cause an excessive w^ood growth 
and diminish the crop. The amount of growth and yields 
being secured should thus be considered in deciding on the 
fertilizer program. 

When manure is to be applied to the vineyard, it should 
be spread evenly between the rows before plowing or disking 



TRAINING THE VINES 



509 



in the spring. Commercial fertilizer should be applied two or 
three weeks before growth starts. Available nutrients will 
then be present to stimulate early growth and to help cause 
a better set of fruit than would be obtained otherwise. 

10. Training the Vines. All knowledge of grape culture 
points to the absolute necessity from the commercial standpoint 
of some system of pruning and training adopted early in the 
life of the vine and followed regularly year by year. Other- 
wise the vines grow out of bounds and the clusters of fruit 
are small and scraggly. 

Procedure : 

(a) Establishing the trellis. 

(6) Determining the system of training. 

(c) Pruning and training the vines. 

(a) Establishing the Trellis, Where good growth of vines 
has occurred, the trellis should be in place ready to support the 
vines at the beginning of the second season, otherwise not later 
than the beginning of the third season. 

A post between every two vines, or about 20 feet apart, 
is good practice. The alternate post may be lighter than its 
neighbor, but should still be strong and rigid. All posts should 
be from 7^4 to 8^4 f^^t long, preferably sharpened so that they 
may be driven into the ground each spring if necessary, and of 
wood naturally durable, or treated to make it so. 

It is good practice to treat all posts, since their period of 
service will be materially increased. Replacement costs on the 
trellis form a considerable item and should be reduced to a 
minimum by adopting the most improved practices. Do not 
set green posts, or those with the bark on. Cedar, locust, oak, 
and other good post woods of local reputation represent proper 
choices. 

Make certain that the posts align well with the vines in the 
row, as a post out of line is a sore thumb throughout its stay 
in the vineyard. For the same reason crooked posts are not 
desirable. 



510 



GROWING GRAPES 



In regions where snowfall and drifting are not a factor, gal- 
vanized-steel posts have given satisfaction. They will not, 
however, withstand strong side pressures, breaking off at the 
ground. 

The wire trellis is the arbor of commerce. Place strong 
posts, firmly anchored and braced, at the ends of the rows 
(Fig. 203). At appropriate distances, insert posts in the row 
to support the wires, attached to the posts by staples extra 
long. These staples are not driven into the wood full length, 
as in building a fence, but are left so that the wires may play 



through the manipulation of hammer and pliers around the end 
posts. 

Number 10 wire, well galvanized, running about 2000 feet 
per hundred pounds, is easily handled and makes a strong 
trellis. Some growers prefer the heavier No. 9 wire, and 
others No. 11. 

Use two wires per row, running the lower from 30 to 36 
inches from the ground, depending on the variety and location. 
It should be high enough to permit free air circulation beneath 
the canes which will be attached to it. 

The second or top wire should be about 24 inches above the 
first wire. Put the wires on the sides of the posts toward the 
prevailing winds, so that pressure may be against the posts 
rather than the wires. The strain on the trellis under a heavy 
load of foliage and fruit is very great. For the same reason 
bring the vines up and train them on the windward side of 
the trellis. 




Fig. 203. This is the common method of 
bracing the end posts of the trelHs. 



freely through them. 
This permits the 
wires to be tightened 
from the ends of the 
row, through the use 
of patent fasteners or 
stretchers which may 
be turned up as the 
wires become slack, or 



TRAINING THE VINES 



511 



(6) Determining the System of Training. With the trellis 
in place, vine training to a definite form begins. Although 
many systems have given good results, from the standpoint of 
simplicity, economy, and results, the single-trunk, four-cane 
Kniffin system takes precedence, and is the only system de- 
scribed in detail here. Essentially it consists of a permanent 
trunk extending to the top wire. At each wire a cane, renewed 
every year, is laid down in each direction. This is the fruiting 
wood or cane. There are then two arms 
or canes on each wire or four for the 
vine as a whole. To these arms coming 
directly from the trunk, or near it, are 
added short spurs or canes at each wire 
from which the canes may be renewed 
the succeeding year. 

(c) Pruning and Training the Vines, 
Cut back the vine to two buds on a single 
stub at planting (Fig. 198) . Repeat the 
operation at the beginning of the second 
season. The top is thus no longer at the 
outset of the second year than it was the 
year before. The plant does have a more 
extensive root system and will grow a 
much larger top during the second season 
than the first. 

Select, early in the second season, the 
strongest shoot that develops from the 
buds on the stub and rub off the others, so that the growth may 
be directed into a single shoot. The vines may be staked 
during the season to get them off the ground and out of the 
way of cultivation, or the lower wire of the trellis may be put 
up, tying the vines loosely to it. Frequently, however, they 
are allowed to run on the ground during the second season. 

The third spring from planting tie the single cane to the 
top wire firmly so that it is taut, thus preventing the crooks 
and arches in the trunk that later prove so troublesome in 




(17. S. D. A,) 

Fig. 204. A vine 
pruned after one 
year's growth in the 
vineyard. 



512 



GROWING GRAPES 



tillage operations (Fig. 205). Cut off the cane just above the 

top wire, at the same time tying it 
loosely to the lower wire for the 
sake of support. 

Leave nothing but this single 
upright cane^ unless the vine is ex- 
ceptionally strong, when short side 
arms may be left each way along 
the lower wire. From these some 
fruit may be borne the third season. 
Buds will be present along the en- 
tire length of the trunk. As shoots 
develop from them near the base 
or suckers spring from the ground 
level, rub them off, repeating the 
operation two or three times during 
the season. Side shoots will appear 
both to the right and left of the 
trunk. These constitute the fruit- 
ing wood for the coming season. 

Strictly speaking, the fruit is 
borne on shoots that develop in the 
spring from buds on wood that was 
formed the previous season (Fig. 
206) . If all new wood remains, the 
clusters of fruit have the character- 
istic loose and scraggly appearance 
of those on unpruned grape arbors 
or wild vines. From the commer- 
cial standpoint the vine ^^overbears." 
To prevent this, leave at pruning 
time only a fraction of the fruiting 
wood. The part that is permitted, 
to remain is naturally that adjacent to the wires where it may 
be tied. 




(Md. Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 205. A vine pnmed and 
tied after two years in the 
vineyard. 



TRAINING THE VINES 



513 



Select, therefore, the fourth spring, a single cane each way 
from the trunk, on each 
wire, making four canes in 
all (Fig. 207) . Leave canes 
at the top wire at the 
''head'' of the vine longer 
than on the lower wire be- 
cause growth is more active 
at the upper extremity. 
Canes of medium length for 
the vine being pruned and 
those above the average 
in diameter, but not the 
largest or overgrown, with 
buds well spaced, are pref- 
erable. For the Concord, 
medium-length canes of 
pencil size, or about % inch 
in diameter and with not 
less than 6 inches between 
the fifth and sixth buds, 
have thus far given very good results in experimental trials 




{N. J. Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 206. A grape shoot that has 
pushed out from the bud in the 
spring. The blossoms are at a. 




(Md. Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 207. (a) A bearing vine pruned and trained according to the single 
trunk, four-arm Kniffin system. (6) The same vine before pruning. 

These specifications would, of course, vary with the vigor of the 
variety. 



514 



GROWING GRAPES 



Forty buds are often prescribed as the proper number to 
be left. This may do for a general rule, but the intelligent 
vineyardist will take into account the variety and the vigor 
evidenced by the vine in question. Vines lacking in vigor 
require heavy pruning to reduce the fruiting load ; strong vines 
will carry a proportionately larger amount of fruiting wood. 

The upper arms will each carry two buds more than the 
lower arms. In addition to the four arms, leave short spurs 
of one or two buds at or near the junction point of each arm 




(Cornell Exp. Station) 
Fig. 208. The two-arm Kniffin system before pruning. 



with the trunk. From these spurs renewal arms, or canes, 
will be taken the following year, for it must be kept in mind 
that these arms must be replaced each season with wood of the 
previous year's growth. 

After pruning, tie the canes along each wire, using soft 
tw^ine or willows. Tie just back of the end bud and also back 
near the trunk, so that the cane may not pull loose. The fruit 
when borne will hang below the wires, easily accessible for 
picking, with good aeration, yet protected from sun and frost. 



TRAINING THE VINES 



515 



Shoots that develop during the growing season are permitted 
to droop or hang at will, excepting that sprouts or suckers 
near the base of the vines should be removed two or three times 
a season. 

Several other systems of training are used almost exclu- 
sively in certain sections. The two-arm Kniffen is similar to 
the four-arm Kniffen, the difference being that only the upper 
laterals are left to produce fruit. The umbrella Kniffen sys- 
tem is a further modification of the two-arm Kniffen. In this 




(Cornell Exp. Station) 
Fig. 209. The two-arm Kniffin system after pruning. The laterals are 

tied to the lower wire. 

case the ends of the laterals are tied to the lower wire (Figs. 
208, 209). The Chautauqua arm system requires three wires 
on the trellis. In this system the upright canes are one-year- 
old wood (Figs. 210, 211). The Keuka high renewal system 
of training requires three wires and more tying (Figs. 212, 
213). In this system the side arms are one-year-old wood 
and the uprights are new growth. 

Modifications of any of these systems may be used to ad- 
vantage in some places. In fact, grape vines may easily be 
trained to cover any trellis according to the grower's wish. 



GROWING GRAPES 




(Cornell Exp. Station) 
Fig. 210. The Chautauqua system before pruning. 







X -^-^ 


14 . / 




Jw^' ^ i 





(Cornell Exp. Station) 



Fig. 211. The Chautauqua system after pruning. 



TRAINING THE VINES 





518 



GROWING GRAPES 



In pruning, work on the right-hand side of one row and on 
the left-hand side of the adjacent row in such a manner that 
the prunings from the two rows may be thrown into the space 
between them. In removing the pruned canes from the trellis, 
give a quick pull along the wire rather than at right angles 
to it, so as not to tear the wires loose and also because less 
effort is required to remove them in this manner. 

In removing the prunings from the vineyard, a 12- or 14- 
foot pole is useful. Hitch a single horse to the larger end of 
the pole with the hitch about 2 feet from the end, using a 
chain long enough so that the horse walks well ahead of the 
pole. The driver may hold the light end of the pole in his 
hand, varying the height as necessary. The prunings will 
accumulate about the larger end as it is pulled along by the 
horse. Some growers prefer to load the prunings on to a 
wagon in the adjacent row, with forks; others haul them out 
with a spring-tooth harrow. 

Results of Recent Pruning Tests. Frequently the first commercial 
crop may be secured one year sooner by following the results of recent 
investigational work. When free-growing varieties, such as Concord, are 
planted on good grape soils, and in addition are manured and fertilized 
with a quickly available nitrogen fertilizer the first season, sufficient vine 
growth is usually made so that one of the canes can be tied to the top 
wire of thv. trellis at the beginning of the second season's growth. In 
such cases^ it is neither wise nor profitable to cut back the cane to two 
buds at the beginning of the second season as described under the pre- 
ceding general recommendations. A little fruit will be produced along 
this trunk in the second year, and many new shoots will be formed, so 
that the complete four-arm Kniffin system may be established at the 
beginning of the third season's growth. As a result, a full commercial 
crop will be secured one year sooner than is customary. When this 
method is followed, the trellis should be erected and the vines tied to 
it at the beginning of the second year's growth. This early fruiting 
does not appear to dwarf the vine or reduce future crops, if good soil 
fertility is maintained. 

If the cane is not long enough to tie to the top wire, at the be- 
ginnings of the second season, it may be tied to the lower wire. At the 
beginning of the third season, the trunk may then be continued with 



TRAINING THE VINES 



519 



a new cane to the top wire and two canes may be tied along the lower 
wire. A fair crop will result the third season. 

Although unusual, it is also possible, when following the 
customary training methods previously described, to have a 
number of vigorous laterals produced on the long cane which 
results from cutting back to two buds after the second year's 
growth. When such conditions of growth do occur, these lat- 
erals may be used during the third year for producing a partial 
crop. 

Cane Renewal. When the main trunk becomes devitalized, 
not producing canes of good vigor and location, its renewal is 
desirable. Select a sprout or sucker from the base of the trunk 
and develop a new trunk gradually, pruning the old vine more 
severely than usual in the meantime. After the third year, 
the old cane may be removed, without in the meantime taking 
the vine completely out of production. 

Time of Pruning, Present information indicates that early 
spring is the best time for grape pruning. This means Febru- 
ary or early March in most regions. Fall-pruned vines may 
show considerable freezing injury in the spring with consequent 
reduction of the crop. Grape wood is too brittle to work with 
when full of frost. Excessive bleeding results from pruning too 
long deferred. The effect of this bleeding has not been fully 
determined, but it seems best to avoid it until more definite 
information is available. 

One exception to the foregoing statement may be desirable. 
In regions subject to severe, late frosts, it may pay to delay 
pruning until late spring, even though some bleeding may 
occur. By delaying the cutting back of the canes, those buds 
which will be left eventually do not force out into growth as 
early as if the canes had been headed back at the usual time. 
The buds at the ends of the canes, which will be removed any- 
way, are then the ones which will grow early and no harm to 
the crop will result if these are frosted. 

Hand shears of a good grade of steel are the most satisfac- 
tory tools for pruning. These are shown among orchard prun- 



520 



GROWING GRAPES 



ing tools, page 231. More powerful shears, or a saw, will be 
needed to cut out large stubs and old vines. 

11. Controlling Insects and Diseases. Since grape foliage 
is relatively close to the ground, and since many of the organ- 
isms to be controlled work on the under side of the leaves, 
movable or flexible booms equipped with nozzles spraying 
upward from below as well as downward from above are de- 
sirable. Sprayers of the traction type are sometimes used, but 
gasoline engine outfits with long leads of hose, or ''trailers/' 
the men spraying from the ground, are preferable. 

Liquid lime-sulfur has not been satisfactory and is not 
used in the vineyard. Bordeaux mixture is the standard 
fungicide. The ordinary orchard insecticides may be used in 
the vineyard. 

Among insects, the grape root worm, the grapeberry moth, 
the leaf hopper, and the grapevine flea beetle are serious pests. 
The rose chafer is occasionally very destructive in sandy areas 
or where such areas are nearby. 

Among diseases, black rot is very destructive in humid 
sections, in wet years, and on some varieties. Downy mildew 
is often serious. Dead arm disease is serious in some sections. 

Follow the control program outlined by the local experi- 
ment station. A full discussion of materials, machinery, and 
methods of application will be found in the chapter entitled 
'^Controlling Insects and Diseases." 

12. Harvesting the Crop. Pick the fruit when full color has 
been reached and when the natural flavor has developed. 
Unripe grapes are an abomination to the consumer and sure 
parents of a declining demand. Only experience will indicate 
the proper stage and appearance for picking. The wood as- 
sumes a characteristic red or chocolate appearance. The 
bloom on the clusters becomes apparent. Preserve the bloom 
carefully by a minimum of handling, as it is evidence of skill 
and consideration, a bond between grower and consumer. 

For distant markets and shipments long in transit, pick 
earlier than for immediate local consumption where the full 



HARVESTING THE CROP 



521 



quality should be permitted to develop. Some varieties, as 
Moore Early, tend to crack if left on the vines too long, espe- 
cially if rains have been abundant during the ripening period. 

Pointed spring scissors, known as picking shears, serve best. 
Clip the stem closely so that the stub may not extend to punc- 
ture adjacent clusters (Fig. 214). Remove all defective berries, 
taking care not to puncture the skin of the berries that remain. 




{Mo. Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 214. This illustrates a good method of 
handling the cluster when picking, holding the 
fruit gently in the open hand and clipping the 
stem close to the shoulder. 

If the fruit is to be repacked at the packing house, the trim- 
ming of the clusters may be done at that time. 

The fruit may be picked into trays or lug boxes holding 
from 20 to 30 pounds (Fig. 215) . Place them on light, mov- 
able wooden stands, a little less than waist high, so that they 
may be filled and carried easily. Pick when possible from the 
windward side of the vines, since the foliage will be less dense, 
and the clusters more evident than on the off side of the trellis. 



522 



GROWING GRAPES 



If supplying a local trade, nearby stores or stands where 
the fruit will be sold by the pound, the grapes may well be 
trimmed and packed ready for market direct from the vines. 
Pack the clusters closely to prevent slack containers, with 
stems down and the clusters at an angle in the upper layer to 
improve the appearance of the pack. 

Set the filled trays under the vines to protect them from the 
sun. Haul from the vineyard in narrow, short-turning wagons. 

The climax basket is the cus- 
tomary retail package. It holds 2, 
4, or 12 quarts, with specifications 
prescribed by federal statute for 
interstate shipment. The 2- and 
4-quart sizes are used most for table 
stock. Gift crates holding a numbei 
of baskets are in use in some sec- 
tions. The baskets should be neatly 
stamped. Attractive labels on the 
covers may be desirable for some 
trades. 

The baskets may be packed di- 
rect from the vines by experienced 
workers (Figs. 216, 217, 218, 219). 
There is an advantage in the one handling. However, payment 
by the basket for picking should not be made in this case, 
especially for table stock, as the temptation to fill the baskets 
loosely and without careful trimming is great. 

Machines now available fasten handles and covers quickly. 
Yields in commercial sections run from 2 to 4 tons per acre, 
5 to 6 tons occasionally being reported. On the Pacific Coast, 
the yield of the Vinifera grape is much greater. 

13. Marketing the Crop. Load baskets tightly in carlot or 
truck shipments. Failure to do so, taking up all slack space, 
results in serious losses (Figs. 221, 222) . A car of loose baskets 
is a juice factory on wheels. Follow the loading diagrams and 
instructions provided by the railroad company. 




Fig. 215. The tray on the 
stand, ready for picking. 
Both tray and stand are 
carried from vine to vine. 



MARKETING THE CROP 



523 



Icing may be necessary for distant markets. 

The grape-juice factory provides an outlet that has grown 
steadily in importance through the years. The juice factories 
desire only well-ripened fruit, chiefly Concord, with a high 




(F. S. D. A.) 

Fig. 216. Grapes are often packed 
in climax baskets as they are picked 
from the vines. This bench shows a 
tray below for the second-grade fruit. 



(77. S. D. A,) 

Fig. 217. Fill the lower end of 
the basket first, keeping the cut 
stem ends down and working 
the clusters gently together to 
give a compact and attractive 
pack. 



sugar content, attributes that are desirable in any case and 
that the grower must provide if the market is to expand. 
These factories usually buy the fruit on a standard contract 
basis. 



524 



GROWING GRAPES 





(U. S. D. A.) 



Fig. 219. This is a good type of picking 
stand. The sloping position of the baskets 
facilitates packing. Several grades may be 
made. 



MARKETING THE CROP 



525 



Well protected by foliage, grapes will withstand consider- 
able cold. Once frosted, however, they shell badly and lose 
their flavor. 

Marketing processes for the grape are marked by the de- 
velopment of numerous cooperative associations in some sec- 
tions. In Michigan, this de- 
velopment is particularly 
marked, with sales on an f.o.b. 
basis. A cooperative associa- 
tion in the Chautauqua and 
Erie grape belt handled 895 
cars of table grapes and fur- 
nished nearly 10,000 tons to 
grape- juice factories in one 
season. 

Fruit from the chief pro- 
ducing areas reaches the far 
South and west to the prairie 
states. The Pacific Northwest 
is supplied chiefly by the state 
of Washington^ which has de- 
veloped a considerable indus- 
try. There is need of better 
distributive measures to serve 
the whole area including the 
smaller towns, rather than a 




iU. S. D. A,) 

Fig. 220. A grape-packing table for 
one person when the fruit is not 
packed in the vineyard. The grapes 
from the field are placed on the table 
under the shelf. The packer pulls 
them forward, packing on the slop- 
ing surface. The tray, or lug, con- 
. taining cull grapes is pushed through 

limited number of large cen- the hole and taken out at the rear, 
ters. The packed baskets are placed on 

Storage. Grapes will keep top of the shelf, 

for some days in cool, dry, and 

well-ventilated common storage. If the weather is sharply 
cool, some varieties will keep for several weeks if in good con- 
dition. Usually the market improves considerably with the 
advent of such weather. Cold storage is desirable for longer 
periods. A temperature of 30"^ F. has given satisfactory 
results. 



526 



GROWING GRAPES 




{Merchants Despatch) 



Fig. 221. This illustrates the method 
of car loading, including turning the 
last row of baskets in diagonal or 
"worm" fashion to take up the space. 




{Merchants Despatch) 



Fig. 222. (a) A poor loading job at the car door. There is too much 
space between baskets, one basket handle is already broken. This car is 
almost certain to reach destination in^Dad condition. (6) These baskets 
have been well loaded at the car door. 



GROWING MUSCADINE GRAPES 



527 



14. Protecting Vines in Winter. Protect the vines in severe 
climates by releasing them from the trellis and allowing them 
to lie on the ground over winter. They may even be covered 
lightly with soil, if the cold is intense. This treatment applies 
to non-commercial regions where grapes are desired for home 
use, and especially to Vinifera grapes in northeastern United 
States. 

GROWING MUSCADINE GRAPES 

Muscadine (rotundifolia) grapes reach their highest perfection in the 
coastal plains region of the South. They are vigorous, long-lived, and 
remarkably free from insect and fungus troubles. 

They are not adapted to marketing as dessert grapes at a distance, 
because the berries are inclined to ripen unevenly, the clusters are as a 
rule small, and the berries when ripe shell or drop from the clusters 
freely. Most varieties possess a strong musky taste. The fruit is adapted 
to home use, for wine making, and culinary purposes. 

Propagation. Propagation may be from cuttings, when skillfully 
handled, but reproduction from layers is the common procedure. It may 
be more satisfactory to purchase the vines from a nursery. Two-year 
rooted layers are desirable. 

Varieties. Thomas and Luola, black varieties, ripening in late 
August; Scuppernong, white, of the same season; Flowers and Hunt, 
black, ripening in late September, are the chief varieties. 

Planting Distances. Most varieties should be planted in rows about 
15 feet apart and 20 to 24 feet apart in the row. They thus require 
double the space of varieties of the Labrusca type. 

Sterility. The varieties are for the most part self-sterile, though 
some self -fertile strains are now available ; pollination takes place from 
the male vines, which produce staminate flowers, but no fruit. Male 
vines abound as a rule in the woods and hedge rows, but it is best to 
plant some rooted layers of staminate vines, which bloom heavily and at 
the same time as the pistillate vines, in the vineyard. A satisfactory 
arrangement is to have the third vine in every third row a male vine. 

Training and Pru7iing. A thtee-wire trellis is commonly used, except 
when the vines are trained over arbors. The wires should be about 2 
feet apart. 

Prune the vines from late October to late November. Later pruning 
induces excessive bleeding. The method of pruning and training may 
be very similar to that for bunch grapes. Regular pruning each year 
should be the rule for the best results. 



528 



GROWING GRAPES 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 

1. Visit three growers — if possible, three that serve different types of 
markets. Prepare in detail a questionnaire before going, seeking the 
following information: 

a. Types of soil — management previous to planting. 
h. Varieties. 

c. Cost of establishing vineyard up to four years of age, including 

erection of trellis. 
Practices and costs on mature vineyard including: 

d. Pruning and training (prune at least 3 vines per student). 

e. Method of removing prunings from vineyard. 
/. Cultivation and cover crops. 

g. Fertilization of soil. 

h. Insect and disease control program. 

i. Picking. 
j. Packing. 
h. Yield. 

I. Method of disposal of crop. 
m. Is icing necessary — costs? 

2. With this information make out a financial statement for a 20-acre 
Concord vineyard in a normal year in your section. 

3. On the basis of your own studies, make definite recommendations 
for the improvement of the grape business. 

a. In your section. 

h. From a national standpoint. 

4. Visit local grape-juice factories; learn the manufacturing process; 
observe the variety and quality of fruit desired. Study the local coopera- 
tive association and score it according to standards promulgated by the 
United States Department of Agriculture. 



CHAPTER XIV 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 

The bush fruits of chief commercial importance include the 
raspberry, the blackberry, and the dewberry — the brambles, 
as they are sometimes called — and the currant, gooseberry, 
and blueberry. 

SECTION I. GROWING THE BRAMBLES 

The red raspberry, black raspberry, purple raspberry, 
blackberry, and dewberry are the brambles of commercial im- 
portance for the country as a whole. To them, but not dis- 
cussed in detail here, must be added the loganberry and the 
so-called Mammoth dewberry of the Pacific Coast, neither at- 
taining importance east of the Rockies, owing apparently to 
inability to withstand climatic changes. 

The red raspberry bears red fruit and possesses erect, rather 
slender canes, usually throwing suckers freely from the roots. 
Our varieties come from both European sorts and American 
wild plants, or crosses between them. 

The black raspberry, commonly called "blackcap," pro- 
duces black fruit, more seedy than the red. The canes droop 
or arch in late summer, and new plants are formed when the 
tips come in contact with the soil. All varieties have been de- 
veloped from the wild sorts found commonly in eastern United 
States. ■ ^ ' 

Yellow varieties appear from time to time, variants of the 
red or black. Some of these, as Golden Queen, are under 
cultivation. 

529 



530 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 




Fig. 223. Raspberries — distribution of acreage in United States. Com- 
pare with blackberry and dewberry, Fig. 224. 




Fig. 224. Blackberry and dewberry — distribution of acreage in United 
States. Compare with raspberries, Fig. 223. 



GROWING THE BRAMBLES 



531 



The purple varieties are hybrids between the red and black, 
resembling the black raspberry in habit of growth and gen- 
erally in method of propagation. They are largely used for 
canning pmposes, and for pies, sauce, jams, etc. 

The blackberry grows wdld in most parts of the country. 
This has retarded its commercial development, but great im- 
provement in varieties as to size, quality, length of season, etc., 
has now been accomplished. 

The dewberry resembles the blackberry, but is prostrate in 
habit as a rule, the vines trailing on the ground. Some varie- 
ties, however, are semi-erect in habit. Its range is much the 
same as that of the blackberry. 

None of the brambles, excepting perhaps the blackberry 
and dewberry, possesses the adaptability of the strawberry 
over wide areas. The red raspberry succeeds beyond the 
northern limit of hardiness of the others. The blackberry and 
dewberry succeed better in the South than other members of 
the group. The dewberry develops a deep root system and 
will thus w^ithstand drought better than other members of the 
group. 

Virus diseases, or mosaics, have become the chief limiting 
factors in raspberry culture. They largely determine the 
profitableness of the enterprise. Consult page 551 for further 
information. 

Operations : 

1. Determining the size of the enterprise. 

2. Selecting the location and soil. 

3. Determining the time of planting. 

4. Securing the plants. 

5. Selecting varieties. 

6. Preparing the soil. 

7. Determining the planting plan. 

8. Setting the plants. 

9. Managing the soil. 

10. Pruning and training the plants. 

11. Controlling diseases and insects. 



632 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



12. Harvesting and marketing the crop. 

13. Protecting the plants in winter. 

1. Determining the Size of the Enterprise* Although the 

brambles are grown in large units for canning factories in some 
sections, the prevailing type of planting is a small acreage as a 
part of a diversified enterprise, with special attention paid 
to local and nearby markets. Up to its capacity, the local 
tow^n or city is often the best market. Even the neighboring 
countryside will absorb large quantities, if the grower stays 
in the business year after year and supplies a good product. 
People come to look to him for their requirements, and farmers 
will often purchase for family use rather than seek to grow 
their ow^n. The advent of good roads and the motor truck 
have greatly enlarged the local service area and the possible 
market for such growers. 

The fruit is a soft and perishable product, ripening over a 
brief period. These facts must be kept in mind with regard to 
harvesting and marketing and will, of course, influence the size 
of the enterprise. 

2. Selecting the Location and Soil. Select a site that pro- 
vides good air drainage. This reduces danger from frosts at 
blossoming time and winter injury, and helps in disease con- 
trol. The berries are lovers of cool temperatures ; if a northern 
slope otherwise well adapted is available, it should be pre- 
ferred. Locations w^here the snow drifts heavily may result in 
broken canes. On the other hand, a moderate amount of snow 
protects from freezing and is desirable. 

Plant on deep, rich loams. A light or medium type under- 
lain with, clay to hold moisture is probably best. The. moisture 
requirement is a most important factor. It cannot be met by 
planting on wet or heavy land, but rather through the incor- 
poration of organic matter, following the same general treat- 
ment outline for the strawberry and grape. So far as prefer- 
ence is exhibited, the dewberry accepts the light soils; the red 
and purple raspberries and the blackberry, the medium loams ; 



SECURING THE PLANTS 



533 



and the black raspberry, the heavier types. The terms are 
relative, and there are gradations and overlappings that make 
it difficult to set limits beyond the necessity of thorough drain- 
age and friability, superior moisture-holding capacity, and 
abundant fertility. It is possible, however, to overdo the 
fertility factor, producing excessive growth that does not 
mature properly and is thus subject to more than the usual 
danger from winter killing. 

3. Determining the Time of Planting. Plant in early 
spring. Fall planting for some members of the group will meet 
with success, especially in the southern reaches of the indus- 
try, but best results on the whole come from spring planting. 
This is especially true of the black raspberry. Protect fall-set 
plants during the first winter by mounding the soil about the 
canes. 

4. Securing the Plants. The red raspberry throws suckers 
or young plants from the roots of the parent plants. They 
may be seen in early spring coming up everywhere along the 
rows. The most destructive diseases of this fruit at the present 
time are the virus diseases or mosaics. Unless it is known 
beyond question that the plantation is free from these diseases, 
no plants should be taken from it. It is much better to pur- 
chase certified stock from reliable nurserymen or growers who 
have followed rigidly the requirements for certification. One- 
year shoots are best, but new sprouts may be used. In the 
latter case, take up the plants with a few inches of the parent 
root attached. Do the work on a cloudy day and keep the 
plants out of the ground the shortest possible time. 

The black raspberry roots from the tips of the parent canes 
which bend over in late summer until they make contact with 
the soil. The process is known as tip layering. If the soil is 
loose and moist, roots soon develop. If a large number of 
plants is desired, it is best to assist nature not only by provid- 
ing a favorable soil medium, but also by throwing a little soil 
on the end of the cane, thus holding the tip in place until it 
becomes established. A late cultivation will usually accom- 



534 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



plish this, but may be supplemented with hand work. Leave 
the tips attached to the parent plants until the following spring. 
Anthracnose, crown gall, and mosaics are usually the limiting 
factors in the life of the black raspberry. Remove the tip 
plants in early spring before they have become infected with 
anthracnose from the old canes. 




(Z7. s. D. A.) 

Fig. 225. Raspberry plants with good root systems desirable for plant- 
ing. Ranere (red) at left; Columbian (purple) in center; Cumberland 

(black) at right. 



The purple raspberry resembles the black raspberry, form- 
ing plants at the tip of the new canes. A few varieties, how- 
ever, do not form tip plants, and must be propagated from 
suckers or root cuttings. 

The blackberry, like the red raspberry, propagates from 
Buckers, one-year plants being best, or, since some varieties 
form suckers but sparingly, new plants may be obtained from 



SELECTING VARIETIES 



535 



root cuttings. In the fall take strong roots from vigorous 
plants, cut in pieces 2 to 4 inches long, store in sand kept moist, 
but not wet, or in sawdust where the temperature is above 
freezing. Plant in early spring 4 to 8 inches apart in furrows,^ 
covering with 3 to 4 inches of soil. Keep thoroughly culti- 
vated. The plants will usually be large enough the following 
spring for field planting. 

The dewberry propagates either from tips or root cuttmgs. 
Most plants are secured from tips, but both methods give 
strong plants. 

When buying plants from the nursery, order first-grade 
plants of the previous year's growth. Heel them in promptly 
on arrival, unless they are to be set at once. 

5. Selecting Varieties. 

Procedure: 

{a) Consider local adaptations of varieties. 
(6) Consider need for cross-pollination. 

(a) Consider Local Adaptations of Varieties. Consult the 
local state experiment station about varieties. The judgment 
of successful growers in the region is valuable. There is great 
difference in adaptability and hardiness of varieties in various 
sections. There is much room for improvement in varieties, 
and doubtless better sorts for certain conditions will appear. 
Some of the experiment stations are directing much careful 
effort to this matter, and new developments should be watched 
closely. The lists given under ^^General Information'' at the 
close of the chapter are guides only. The varieties mentioned 
should at least be considered in making selections. Check 
them against local experience and judgment. 

(6) Consider Need for Cross-Pollination. Practically all 
the commercial varieties of raspberries are self-fruitful, and 
as a result can be planted in solid blocks. Very little experi- 
mental evidence is available on this question for red, purple, 
or black raspberries, but the fact that practically all the com- 



536 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



mercial varieties of these fruits are productive when planted in 
solid blocks, even at great distances from other varieties, is 
sufficient evidence that the pollination problem, if any, is a 
very minor one with them. 

Practically all the common blackberry varieties are self- 
fruitful. There are a few hybrid varieties, however, such as 
McDonald, Rathhun, Spaulding, and Wilson which do not 
^^set" well with their own pollen. Such varieties should not bo 




Fig. 226. Red raspberries grown in hedge rows without stakes or trellig. 
The canes have been clipped shorter than in Figs. 227 and 228. 



planted by themselves, but with some other variety so that 
suitable pollen will be available for cross-pollination purposes. 
The Mammoth and Cory Thornless varieties have also been 
found to be more or less self-unfruitful under Oregon condi- 
tions, and it is suggested that provision should be made for 
cross-pollination if these varieties are grown. 

Most of the commercial varieties of dewberries such as 
Lucretia, Mayes (Austin), and Young are self-fruitful, but 
certain varieties as Premo, Chestnut, Grandee, Munroe, and 
San Jacinto have been found to be self -unfruitful. In these 



DETERMINING THE PLANTING PLAN 537 



varieties, provision must be made for cross-pollination or poor 
crops will result. 

6. Preparing the Soil. Grow a tilled crop the year previous 
to planting. Prepare the soil deeply and thoroughly. An 
abundance of organic matter is desirable. Eliminate all grass 
and weeds, such as wild morning-glory and quackgrass, before 
planting, since, once the rows are established, it is almost 
impossible to combat such growths effectively. Follow the 




Fig. 227. Red raspberries grown in hills about 18 inches apart and trained 

to a wire trellis. 



directions under 'fertilizing the SoiP' for enrichment of the* 
soil. 

Have the soil in the best possible tilth for planting. This 
will hasten the planting operations, give the plants a better 
chance to establish themselves, and reduce later trouble with 
grass and weeds. 

7. Determining the Planting Plan. Allow plenty of space 
for plants. What is plenty of space depends on the type, the 
variety, and the soil, but in general there is a tendency to set 
too closely^ the amount of room the plants will take whea 



638 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



the plantation is in full bearing not being appreciated. Put 
the rows far enough apart to permit team or tractor cultivation 
between them in one direction. There may be exceptions to 
this rule, but for commercial purposes it is often better to use 
more land, permitting quick and economical cultivation, than 
to restrict the area and increase the hand labor. 

The hill or hedgerow systems (Figs. 226, 227, 228) may be 




{TJ. S. D. A.) 



Fig. 228. Red raspberries grown in hills and 
trained to stakes in the Hudson Valley section 
of New York. 

followed, the latter being in commercial favor. Red rasp- 
berries and many varieties of blackberries sucker so freely that 
it is difficult to maintain the hill system, growers usually 
allowing the row to fill in in one direction, but keeping the 
width of the row restricted by plowing and cultivation. The 
hill system produces the larger fruits but the smaller total 
yield. It is easier to pick the fruit under the hill system. A 
modification of both systems sometimes called "h'near" is to 



SETTING THE PLANTS 



539 



restrict the width of the row to the parent plants, but to culti- 
vate only one way. 

Red raspberries at 3 feet by 7 or 8 feet for the hedgerow 
system, or 5 to 6 feet apart each way for the hill system, repre- 
sent standard practice. The hill system permits cultivation 
both ways and may reduce hand labor. At the distances given 
for the hill system only a single horse can be used. De- 
partures from these recommendations should be governed by 
the fertility of the soil and the natural vigor of growth of the 
variety. 

Black raspberries, although they do not sucker, possess a 
spreading and drooping habit of growth and need more space 
than might be thought necessary: 4 feet by 8 feet is about 
right, but some growers prefer 9 or 10 feet between rows. 

The purple varieties are as a rule strong growers and need 
the maximum distances accorded the black raspberry. This 
also applies to the blackberry. If grown in hills, however, as 
it sometimes is, it may be set closer in one direction. The 
dewberry requires about 3 feet by 7 or 8 feet for the hedgerow 
system and 5 or 6 feet apart each way in hills, depending on 
the fertility of the soil. 

8. Setting the Plants. Furrow the rows out in one direc- 
tion. It will save time to cross-mark them the other way to 
determine the location of the plants, and to make it possible 
to cross-cultivate at least during the first season. Do not 
expose the roots to wind or sun. If the roots are puddled or 
coated with mud, this gives them added protection. Drop 
the plants just ahead of the planters, from pails or buckets 
containing a little mud and water. A dull, cloudy day pro- 
vides excellent conditions for planting. Put the plants against 
the straight side of the furrow, cover the roots with soil, firm- 
ing it with the foot, and turn back the remaining soil with 
plow or cultivator. It is good practice to set deeply, working 
the soil back gradually through the season. Do not cover the 
crowns of tip plants, or layers, of the black raspberry and the 
purple varieties, as this interferes with their development. 



540 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



In setting black and purple varieties of raspberries, com- 
munication of anthracnose to the young plants may be pre- 
vented by removing and destroying the old stubs or canes 
which have no use except convenience in handling, and as 
markers for the rows. 

The spade may be substituted for the plow in planting. 
Push it into the ground, work it forward, and insert the plant 
behind it, shaking out the roots. Remove the spade and firm 
the soil about the plant with the foot. 

If the young plants have started growth, the buds and new 
shoots will be very soft and easily broken. Handle them with 
great care. It is evident that only strong, well-rooted, healthy 
plants should be used. Discard all others. 

9. Managing the Soil. 

Procedure: 

(a) Cultivating the soil. 

(b) Fertilizing the plants. 

(a) Cultivating the Soil. Begin cultivation as soon as the 
plants are set. There is no substitute for it in the commercial 
plantation. The canes will not make vigorous growth or carry 
the crop to maturity without an abundance of moisture. Much 
of the root system is close to the surface. Grass and weeds 
rob it of water. 

Whatever the type of row to be developed, cultivate both 
ways during the first season if possible. Finish with the hand 
hoe. Tilled or hoed crops between the rows during the first 
year may insure thorough care to the brambles themselves, 
and bring some return, though of course they increase the ex- 
pense of cultivation. Raise crops adapted to the region for 
which there is use on the farm, or a market outside, except 
crops that necessitate stirring the ground late in the season, 
as late potatoes. The latter may induce growth of canes 
beyond the normal time limit, and increase the danger of 
winter injury. 



MANAGING THE SOIL 



541 



After the first season, cultivation must be shallow, espe- 
cially adjacent to the rows. The roots of the black and purple 
raspberries are barely beneath the surface, and in the red 
raspberry and blackberry, which sucker from the roots, the 
more the roots are broken, the more numerous will be the 
suckers that come up to plague the grower. With the latter 
fruits, the rows must be rigidly restricted in width or the 
suckers will gradually preempt the entire area. This can be 
done only by frequent and thorough cultivation. In the hill 
system the problem and solution are the same, except that the 
rows must not fill in between the hills. 

The plantation will yield some fruit the second season — a 
considerable amount if all conditions have been favorable. 
Cultivate each year through the harvesting season to loosen 
the soil packed down by picking, and to conserve all moisture 
possible for the plants. If the plants droop over the cultivated 
area, they must not be disturbed when loaded with ripe fruit, 
or much of it will fall to the ground. In such a case, cultivate 
immediately after each picking. 

Sow a cover crop in late summer, about mid-August in 
most sections, keeping the crop well away from the rows if it 
is one that lives over winter. Oats and barley, winter vetch, 
the clovers, cow peas, and soy beans possess merit, and under 
the proper conditions give good results. 

Some growers secure good results by plowing toward the 
rows just deeply enough to turn the furrow before sowing the 
cover crop, and plowing away from the rows in the spring. 

Mulching aids in moisture conservation and constitutes 
good practice where the cost of the material is not prohibitive. 

Irrigation is necessary in some of the arid or semi-arid 
sections. The technique and practice relate directly to the 
needs of the particular section, and have been developed to 
meet them. In the Eastern states, overhead irrigation is valu- 
able at times, when, in spite of good care, an abnormally dry 
season makes the lack of moisture the limiting factor in pro- 
duction. For the most part it is more to the point to maintain 



542 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



the supply of humus with its moisture-holding properties, and 
to cultivate frequently, than to rely upon irrigation. 

(b) Fertilizing the Plants, The addition of organic matter 
is especially important in the fertilization of brambles. Mois- 
ture is often as much of a limiting factor to cane growth and 
fruit production as soil nutrients. Organic matter improves 
the physical condition of the soil so that its moisture-holding 
capacity is greatly increased. 

Before the plants are set, a heavy application of barnyard 
manure should be plowed under and the soil thoroughly culti- 
vated. Under many conditions the addition of 8 to 10 tons 
of manure per year and the turning under of cover crops will 
be sufficient to maintain vigorous canes and heavy fruit pro- 
duction. 

There is very little experimental evidence relative to the 
fertilization of the brambles. Experimental results in New 
York, Oregon, and Rhode Island show that red raspberries 
respond especially well to applications of nitrate of soda. 
When this material is added, not only are more canes pro- 
duced but also the individual canes are more vigorous and 
have larger leaves. Fruit production is also increased to 
some extent. From 150 to 300 pounds of nitrate of soda per 
acre are added, depending upon the soil and the growth of 
the plants. 

The evidence relative to the fertilization of black rasp- 
berries, purple raspberries, and blackberries is very meager. 

In North Carolina, two applications of fertilizer are gen- 
erally made to dewberries after the first year. The first ap- 
plication is made just as soon as the canes have been tied up 
in the spring. The formula used varies somewhat in the dif- 
ferent sections and with the different growers, but one that is 
often used consists of 2 per cent nitrogen, 10 per cent phos- 
phoric acid, and 8 per cent potash. From 500 to 700 pounds 
per acre are used. 

The second application is made immediately after the crop 
has been harvested and the canes cut off. Some growers use 



PRUNING AND TRAINING THE PLANTS 543 



the same formula at this time, but since this applicatior is 
intended primarily to stimulate a rapid growth of vigorous 
new canes, a large proportion of nitrogen is favored by most 
growers. From 500 to 800 pounds of cottonseed meal plus 
100 pounds of nitrate of soda, or 10 to 20 tons of manure, are 
often applied to the acre. 

Apparently the most important thing to watch, especially 
in the North, is the application of too much fertilizer contain- 
ing quickly available nitrogen which may result in making 
the berries soft and in causing such a late growth that injury 
by low temperatures may follow. It has recently been shown 
that a late summer cover crop, fertilized if necessary to pro-. 
duce a heavy growth, will assist materially in hardening the 
canes so they will better withstand low temperatures. 

10. Pruning and Training the Plants. Pruning and train- 
ing vary somewhat with the different varieties and fruits. The 
amount and kind of pruning necessary will be understood 
better if the method of growth is known. Each season new 
canes appear as shoots from the crown or roots and from buds 
near the bases of the previous yearns canes. These new canes 
complete their growth the first summer, bear a crop the next 
year, and then die. They are then ready to be removed. The 
canes are biennial, but the roots live for several years and are 
perennial. It can thus be seen that, unless systematic pruning 
is practiced each year, the plantation will soon become choked 
with dead canes and there will be too many living canes for 
best fruit production. 

Red Raspberries. The new shoots of the red raspberry 
should not be pinched or cut back in early summer. When 
these plants are pinched back, the new laterals formed are 
generally weak, are not very productive, and are often winter 
killed. After the fruit is harvested the old canes should be 
removed and burned. 

In the spring, just before or as growth is starting, the 
weaker canes should be thinned out and those left should be 
headed back. If the hill system is used, from five to seven 



544 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



Vigorous canes should be left per plant, but if the hedgerow 
is used about ten canes to every 4 feet of row should be left 
for fruiting. The amount of heading back depends upon the 
vigor of the canes, the method of training or support, the 
moisture-holding capacity of the soil, and the possible amount 
of rainfall during the growing season. Usually the canes 

should be left 4 to 5 feet 
high. The least amount of 
heading that will result in 
fruit of good size and still 
keep the fruit off the ground 
is desirable. 

A trellis is more gener- 
ally used with red than with 
black raspberries. If a trel- 
lis is used, less heading back 
is practiced and greater 
yields are generally secured 
(Fig. 227) . However, on ac- 
count of the labor and ex- 
pense of trellising, many 
growers prefer to head back 
the canes so they will be 
stocky enough to stand erect 
(17. s. D. A.) y^'ith the crop and to accept 
Fig. 229. Wooden crosslegs with a any decreased yields which 
wire on each side at the top held in xnay result (Fig. 226) . 
place by bent nails, are used to ^^^^ sections where 

support the canes in some raspberry , .„ , . , 

g^j^g the hill system is used, a 

stake or post is set at each 
hill, and the canes are tied to it (Fig. 228). The system of 
placing 3- or 4-foot posts at intervals of 20 to 30 feet and 
stretching two wires along cross-arms is also used where the 
narrow hedgerow or linear system is maintained. Other sys- 
tems consist of using either one wire attached to posts as a 
support for the vines or, in some cases, two or three wires 




PRUNING AND TRAINING THE PLANTS 



545 



perpendicular to each other. The canes are then either tied ' 
or wound around these wires, or bent over and caught between 
the canes of the next hill as desired by the grower. 

Black and Purple Raspberries, In order to prevent long, 
slender, weak canes, which bend over or break when heavy 
crops are borne, the new shoots of black raspberries are usually 




Fig. 230. Black raspberries with the new canes 
tipped in the summer. 



pinched or cut off when they have reached a height of from 
18 to 24 inches (Fig. 230) . Since the purple raspberries often 
grow more vigorously, they are headed from 30 to 36 inches 
high. It is necessary to go over the plantation several times 
during early summer in order to pinch the different shoots when 
they have reached the proper height. The shoots should not be 
allowed to grow 4 or 5 feet before the heading back is done. 



546 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



This heading back produces not only a stockier cane, but a 
cane with lower branches. The buds which produce much of 
the next year's fruiting shoots are borne on these branches. 

The crop is borne for the most part upon new fruiting 
branches which grow in the spring from axillary buds along 
the laterals or branches. However, when the laterals are 
headed back heavily, considerable fruit is also borne from 
shoots which spring from the main cane. 

The fruit buds on the laterals are generally so numerous 
on healthy plants that it would be impossible for the plants to 
develop the crop if all of them were left. As a result it is best 
to shorten these laterals in the spring just before or at the 
time growth starts. 

Standard recommendations in the past have been to shorten 
these laterals, leaving them 14 to 18 inches in length, but it 
has recently been shown that the laterals of black raspberries 
can be headed quite severely without greatly reducing the 
total crop, while the size of the individual berries will usually 
be much better because of such severe pruning. Studies in 
Michigan show that, where laterals are headed back to four 
or six buds, excellent fruit is produced from these buds and 
also many fruiting shoots force out from the main cane. The 
individual fruits produced on the shoots which grow from the 
main cane are larger than those produced from the laterals. 
Other valuable evidence shown in these tests is that the yield 
from canes and from laterals, and likewise the size of berry, 
are closely associated with diameter or size of cane. Yields 
of individual fruiting shoots and likewise the average size of 
berry were also found to be closely correlated with the amount 
of foliage. It is stated, 'The advantages of short pruning are 
more pronounced during ripening seasons that are character- 
ized by low humidity and high temperature. It is to a degree 
an insurance against drought injuries." 

It has also been shown at the Cornell Station that practi- 
cally all the buds on black and red raspberry canes are po- 
tential fruit buds, although in blackberries there seems to be a 



PRUNING AND TRAINING THE PLANTS 



547 



greater likelihood of the basal buds being undetermined, or if 
forced into growth, of being vegetative. 

Although there is practically no experimental evidence rela- 
tive to the heading back of the laterals of the purple rasp- 
berries, it has been shown in Missouri that some varieties, 
such as Cardinal, produce fewer buds along the basal portions 
of the laterals than black raspberries. With such varieties 
it seems best to leave the laterals about 18 inches in length. 

At the time of the spring pruning any weak canes should 
be thinned out. If the canes are vigorous, very little thinning 
should be practiced as thinning of vigorous canes will greatly 
reduce yields without materially increasing the size of berries. 
Likewise, laterals should not be thinned out, unless weak or 
diseased. 

Usually, after the crop is harvested, the old canes are im- 
mediately removed and burned. In some regions where heavy 
snows occur the old canes are sometimes left as a protection to 
the new ones, but it is generally best to remove and burn them 
immediately after fruiting in order to destroy any disease 
which might spread to the new shoots. 

In many regions no trellises are used for black and purple 
raspberries. By shortening the new shoots in the summer and 
the resultant laterals in the spring, the plants become stocky 
and are able to hold up their crops without additional support. 
In some cases the new canes of each plant are bunched to- 
gether and tied with a cord just beneath where the laterals 
emerge, thus helping to keep the plants erect. Occasionally 
trellises are used and then posts about 30 inches in height at 
intervals of 25 to 35 feet in the rows are employed. Cross- 
arms about 18 inches long are fastened to the posts, and No. 12 
galvanized wire is stretched and fastened to the ends of these 
arms. This supports the fruiting canes and keeps the fruit 
out of the mud and dirt. In some regions, no wire is used, but 
stakes are driven into the ground at each plant and the plants 
are then tied to these stakes. 

Blackberries. The pruning of the blackberry is quite simi- 



548 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



lar to that outlined for the black and purple raspberries. The 
old canes should be removed and burned immediately after the 
fruit is harvested. The new shoots should be pinched or 
headed back early in the summer when they have reached a 
height of 24 to 30 inches. If the plantation is unusually vigor- 
ous, this height might be increased another foot. It is neces- 
sary during the summer to keep cultivating and hoeing out the 

new shoots which spring up 
between the rows or the 
plantation will soon become 
a thicket. 

In the spring, all weak 
and slender canes should be 
removed and only the 
strongest ones, about 10 
inches apart, should be left. 
The laterals should also be 
headed back at this time. 
If there are several vigorous 
laterals on each cane, it will 
be well to head them back 
quite heavily, leaving them 
8 to 10 inches in length, 
but if the laterals are not 
numerous lighter heading 
should be practiced. A re- 
cent Missouri bulletin shows 
that there are more basal 
fruit buds on the laterals of Early Harvest and Robinson than 
on Snyder, Eldorado, Taylor, and Rathbun. As a result it is 
suggested that the laterals of Early Harvest and Robinson 
should be shortened to 10 to 15 inches, while those of the other 
varieties should be left 18 to 24 inches long. 

In some regions, no trellis is used, especially with the 
stockier varieties and where heavier pruning is practiced. 
However, in other regions and especially where the more 




Fig. 231. Blackberries growing ac- 
cording to the hedgerow system. Red 
raspberries are also grown in this 
manner. The young canes have been 
tipped at the desired height in the 
growing season; red raspberry canes 
should not be headed back until the 
following spring. 



PRUNING AND TRAINING THE PLANTS 549 



vigorous and trailing varieties are grown, a trellis is always 
used. The type of trellis 
varies with the particular 
conditions or convenience 
of grower. Those described 
under red raspberries are 
also used by blackberry 
growers. The Evergreen 
Blackberry is trained to a 
four-wire trellis in Oregon 
and Washington and to a 
pole trellis 5% feet high, or 
to stakes like dewberries, 
in New Jersey. 

Dewberries. Pruning 
and training of dewberries 
vary somewhat in the dif- 
ferent sections. In North 
Carolina and other middle- 
southern sections, the plants 
are usually grown in hills 
5 feet apart each way. In 
these regions both the old 
and new canes are cut off 
and the tops burned imme- 
diately after harvest. With 
thorough cultivation and 
the application of fertilizer, 
new shoots then grow vig- 
orously and are allowed to 
trail on the ground. The 
following spring the canes 
are wound spirally about 
stakes at each hill and 
tied at about three places. 




(77. s. D. A.) 

Fig. 232. Pruning hooks, home made, 
used to remove old canes after bearing 
and to thin the young canes. These 
implements are about 34 inches long. 
The straps slip over the wrist. Some- 
what similar hooks may be purchased. 

The stakes are usually driven 



550 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



2 feet into the ground and extend 5 to 6 feet above the 
ground. 

Where the rows are from 5 to 6 feet apart and the plants 
about 3 feet apart in the rows, tw^o plants are often trained to 
one post, which is located about half way between the plants. 
In some sections posts are located from 20 to 30 feet apart in 




(V. S. D. A.) 



Fig. 233. A Lucretia dewberry field in Michigan. The bearing canes 
have been tied to a wire and the ends cut off about 6 inches above the 

wire. 

the rows, and along the tops of the posts is strung a wire to 
which the vines are tied up in the spring. 

In some of the Gulf states no stakes or wires are used. The 
plants are set from 18 to 36 inches apart in the row and are 
allowed to form more of a matted row. Just before picking, 
the new canes are cut back so that they will not interfere with 
the pickers. After the crop is harvested the old and new 
canes are mowed as close to the ground as possible and when 



CONTROLLING DISEASES AND INSECTS 551 



dry are burned without being removed 
destroys many insects and diseases. 
Thorough cultivation is then practiced, 
and the new canes make a solid row 
for the next year's crop. 

11. Controlling Diseases and Insects. 
The diseases and insects that trouble 
the brambles are relatively few, but 
some are very destructive. The grower 
should be familiar with the more im- 
portant ones. 

These are anthracnose, attacking 
all brambles, but especially virulent 
on the black raspberry; cane blight y 
also severe on black raspberries, but 
affecting all raspberries; crown gall, 
infecting chiefly red and black rasp- 
berries and blackberries; orange rust, 
destructive to blackberries and dew- 
berries and occasionally to black rasp- 
berries; and double blossom, seriously 
affecting blackberries and dewberries 
in Southern sections. Follow the con- 
trol program of the local experiment 
station. 

The mosiacs and other virus dis- 
eases are very destructive to rasp- 
berries, especially red varieties in some 
sections. In parts of New York the 
industry has disappeared by reason of 
the inroads of these diseases. No 
parasitic organism has been discovered, 
but juices from an infected plant, when 
introduced into a healthy plant under 
proper conditions, will result in infec- 
tion. Thus the term ^'virus'' diseases. 



from the field. This 



{U. S. D. A.) 

Fig. 234. These shears 
are in common use in 
some sections for pruning 
dewberries. The blades 
curve upward so that the 
operator may cut the 
canes close to the crown 
of the plant without 
much bending over. 



552 GROWING BUSH FRUITS 

An affected plant never recovers and parts taken for propaga- 
tion are also diseased. 

In red varieties the disease appears as a mottling and 
puckering of the leaves and dwarfing of the canes (Fig. 235) ; 
in black varieties the growing tips and young leaves are also 
killed. Plants of red and purple varieties are seldom killed 
outright, but the yield and quality are greatly reduced. Black 
raspberries are frequently killed. The diseases, which are car- 
ried by aphids or plant lice, 
are disseminated chiefly by 
winged forms and ants. They 
may also be carried on till- 
age implements. The streak 
or blue stem of black and 
purple raspberries is one of 
the virus diseases. Some 
varieties are resistant to the 
virus diseases; others are 
very susceptible. Cuthbert, 
June, Marlboro, Ranere, Co- 
lumbian, and Cumberland 
are susceptible. Herbert, 
Latham^ and Plum Farmer 
are less so, at least under 
many conditions. 

Plant resistant varieties 
or those from disease-free 
fields. Use ''certified'^ stock, that is, stock that has been rogued, 
and kept free as attested by competent plant disease inspectors 
representing a public agency. In some sections it will pay to 
eliminate or rogue the diseased plants during at least the first 
two years of the plantation. Take up the affected plants and 
remove at once. Do not leave them in the rows or about the 
field as the aphids will desert them for other plants as soon 
as they begin to wilt. Plant the rows far enough apart so that 
horses and tools do not brush the plants in tillage operations. 




{W, B. Rankin) 



Fig. 235. The red raspberry plant on 
the left shows typical mosaic symp- 
toms; the one on the right is normal. 



HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE CROP 



553 



It is not contended that these measures will control in all 
sections, but they have been effective in some areas. 

Among insects, the tree cricket, puncturing the canes, is 
sometimes serious; the cane borer girdles young canes and 
bores into the roots, the crown borer is very destructive in 
some western berry sections. The raspberry sawfly larvae 
feed on the leaves in northern sections and west to the Missis- 
sippi; the raspberry beetle causes many wormy red raspberries, 
and the red spider sometimes infests the brambles, causing the 
leaves to look yellow and sick. Each section has worked out 
control methods for those insects of local importance. Follow 
them, keeping in touch with new findings from year to year. 

12. Harvesting and Marketing the Crop. The fruit of all 
members of this group is very perishable. It ripens quickly, 
reaches its highest point of excellence quickly, and deteriorates 
just as rapidly. These natural processes are accentuated by 
wet, sultry weather. The red raspberry is especially tender, 
and its period of use for consumption is short. Plans must be 
made well in advance to handle every detail of the harvesting 
and marketing operations promptly and efficiently. Packages 
must be on hand, pickers must be available, and the channels 
through which marketing is to take place must be clearly in 
mind. 

Pick raspberries as soon as they separate freely from the 
bushes. They will then be firm and will stand handling and 
shipping better than if allowed to become fully ripe. Pick 
them only when dry; wet fruit goes down within a few hours 
from disease, settles greatly in the boxes, and is decidedly un- 
attractive. 

Pick the fruit with the greatest care, using the thumb and 
two fingers. Unskilled pickers hold quantities of fruit in the 
hand after picking, partially crushing it before it reaches the 
box. Place the berries gently in the box instead of dropping 
them from a distance. 

Pick directly into the boxes in which the fruit goes to mar- 
ket. For red raspberries, these should be pint baskets, since 



554 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



the fruit is structurally so weak that if quart baskets are used 
the weight of the top layers will crush the berries in the 
bottom. Quart boxes are standard for black and purple berries 
and may also be used for the reds if they are to go at once 
to the canning factory. 

Carry only a few boxes, from two to four, in a container 
tied around the waist or, tetter still, suspended from the 
shoulders, so that there is less danger of spilling the fruit as 
the picker leans over. A heavy apron folded up and caught 




(17. JS. D. ±.) 

Fig. 236. These various types of waist carriers and hand carriers, or 
stands, are used in picking the fruit. 



at the corners with safety pins will hold several baskets. Two 
boxes are better than four, as the longer the picker carries 
the fruit about, the more it wall settle in the boxes, the larger 
the quantity that will be required to fill them, and the more 
the fruit will depreciate in value. A basket of carefully picked 
fruit is largely air. It is poor business to replace this air with 
more berries by crude picking and handling methods, when the 
consumer desires the fruit in the original state. 

Transfer the boxes from the carrier to stands or crates out 
of the sun, and keep the fruit in the shade and as cool as 
possible from this point until it is delivered for consumption 
or shipment. Avoid as far as possible picking in the full heat 



HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE CROP 555 



of the day, as the fruit will stand up much better if put into 
the boxes when cool. Do not run or grade the fruit further, as 
any gains in so doing are more than lost by added injury from 
handling. The picker must discard the over-ripe or undesir- 
able berries as he goes along. Some growers have the pickers 
carry special boxes in which to place such fruit, putting it into 
local consumption the same day. From six to ten pickers per 
acre, depending on their proficiency and the picking condi- 
tions, will be needed. 




Fig. 237. These pint baskets of Cuthbert red 
raspberries are the same except that the basket 
at the right has been faced by turning the ber- 
ries in the top layer. Facing makes a more at- 
tractive package, takes little time, and pays 
well for some kinds of trade. 

Use the standard 32- or 24-quart crate for all except the 
red raspberries. The latter go best in pint boxes in crates 
holding from 16 to 24 pints. Use spring wagons or pneumatic 
tires for hauling. 

Refrigeration is necessary for long shipments, and pre- 
cooling is advisable. Red raspberries so handled from the state 
of Washington now come as far east as Pittsburgh. 

In addition to use as fresh fruit, the berries are canned, or 
used for juice, jelly, jams, or syrups for soda fountains. Much 
of the fruit is now stored in casks or barrels after freezing, 
either with or without the addition of sugar, for later use. The 



556 GROWING BUSH FRUITS 

flavor, when properly handled, is excellent, and considerable 
extension of this method of holding will take place as further 
improvements and perfections of the process are made. See 
'Trozen Fruit,'^ page 148. 

Harvesting methods for the blackberry and dewberry are 
essentially the same. Most varieties turn black, however, be- 
fore they are ripe. If picked as soon as they turn, they are too 
sour to be agreeable, but of course they must come off while 

still firm. Keep entirely 
away from the sun, as the 
fruit becomes bitter when, 
exposed to it. 

Pay pickers by the hour^ 
for a high-class product. 
The cost per basket will 
probably be greater, but 
the product should be 
worth more than enough 
additional to make up the 
difference. For the can- 
ning factory, or if using 
the help of neighbors or 
permanent residents of the 
community, the piecework 
basis may give satisfaction. 
In any event, personal su- 
pervision by some one in authority is necessary to insure clean 
picking, careful handling, and grading. A bonus payable at the 
end of the season will often hold pickers until the job is done. 

For recording boxes picked, use the check or punch card 
system. A metal check may be given for each box or crate,. 
to be redeemed on payday. A card properly designated with 
numbers may be given the pickers and punched by the super- 
intendent upon delivery of the fruit. This system makes- 
abuse and fraud easy unless the style of punch is changed fre- 
quently. A book record may be kept in lieu of the above sys- 




HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE CROP 557 



terns, but the responsibility is then entirely on the operator, 
and misunderstanding and dissatisfaction are likely to ensue. 
It is better to make the picker share the responsibility by put- 
ting in evidence his check or card when he gets his pay. It is 
also evident that frequent paydays will help to keep things 
running smoothly. 

Dried Fruit, In Ontario, Schuyler, and Yates Counties in 
New York, blackcaps are grown for drying. For the most part 
they are harvested by a special contrivance. A '^harvester'' 
or wide frame covered with burlap or muslin is pushed under 
the bush. The operator pulls the canes over the frame with 
a wire hook in one hand, and with the other he ^^bats" the 
canes with a light wooden paddle. The ripe fruit falls on to 
the frame. The plantation is usually gone over twice by this 
method. The leaves, sticks, etc., are blown out by running 
the dried product through fanning mills. Three to 4 quarts 
of freah fruit make 1 pound of the dried product, depending 
on the variety and the condition of the fruit, whether dry 
and seedy or juicy at time of harvest. The dried fruit can of 
course be transported long distances and kept indefinitely. 
Red raspberries may be dried, but the shrinkage is very great 
and they are unattractive. The purple varieties are better for 
this purpose. However, with the advent of new and improved 
methods of canning and preserving, and storage, it is likely 
that the demand for the dried product will diminish rather than 
increase. 

Life of Plantation, Berry plantations will last indefinitely 
if well tilled and fed, pruned regularly, and kept free from 
disease. 

If grass and weeds invade the rows or sod forms about the 
roots, cane growth becomes weak and yields quickly fall below 
a profitable level. The black raspberry is as a rule the first to 
surrender. Winter killing takes a hand now and again. The 
prevalence of disease is often the limiting factor. Mosaic, 
anthracnose, crown gall, and orange rust will take heavy toll 
and must be fought constantly with some members of the group 



558 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



and in nearly all sections. By the setting of healthy plants, 
constant watchfulness, severe roguing when required, and in- 
telligent spraying, the grower adds years to his plantation and 
augments his profits. 

Yields. Yields vary with the kind of fruit, the season, and 
the section, in addition to the factors heretofore mentioned. 
The average yield of raspberries for the country is less than 
1000 quarts per acre, but this is a poor measure for the good 
grower. In most parts of the country to which they are 
adapted, purple varieties yield the most, followed by blackcap 
and the red varieties in order. Perhaps 2500 quarts for purple 
varieties, 2000 quarts for blackcaps, and 1600 to 1800 quarts 
per acre for red raspberries represent reasonable standards 
under good care. Yields much in excess of these are not at all 
uncommon. In marginal territory to which these fruits are not 
well adapted, the yields may be much less. Under the special 
conditions of the Northwest and in sections of Colorado the 
yields of red varieties, chiefly Cuthbert, Antwerp, and Marl- 
boro, run from 4000 to 8000 quarts per acre. 

Blackberries and dewberries usually run from 2200 quarts 
per acre upward, under good management. However, since 
they ripen at the hottest and driest season of the year, the 
yield may be seriously reduced by unfavorable weather. 

13. Protecting the Plants in Winter. Winter protection is 
necessary in some sections. Local experience is the guide. 
Protection is not occasioned so much by absolute cold as by 
frequent drying winds or by sharp temperature changes before 
the rest period has been fully established. 

As the first and best protective measure, select hardy 
varieties. Beyond this, if the plants need partial protection, 
plow out a light furrow close to the row on one side. This will 
induce the canes to bend over easily. Take forks with long 
handles and push the canes steadily toward the side on which 
the furrow has been made until the ends of the canes touch 
the ground. Reversing the direction, plow another furrow 
back, throwing the soil over the ends of the canes to hold them 



GENERAL INFORMATION * 559 



in place. Several men or boys will be needed to assist the 
plowman Perform the operation after warm weather is over, 
but before the ground is frozen. The canes will still be supple 
and will bend with only slight breakage. If complete coverage 
is desired, smooth the furrow over the canes, plowing a second 
furrow if more soil is needed. Uncover the canes before 
growth begins in the spring. 

In Idaho, according to the United States Department of 
Agriculture, a contrivance has been devised by the growers 
by which, if complete coverage is necessary, the work may be 
done cheaply and quickly. 



GENERAL INFORMATION 

1. Varieties 

The varieties listed are of commercial importance in various sec- 
tions. Selections should be based on local experience and the recom- 
mendations of competent official agencies. 

Red Raspberry 

A variety of red raspberry may be adapted to one particular district, 
but throughout the raspberry-growing region of the country there are 
standard red raspberry varieties. Cuthbert is a standard of quality, 
excellent for dessert, cooking, and freezing. Its lack of hardiness in 
northern regions, low productivity, small berries, and susceptibility to 
mosaic have caused it to be replaced to a large extent by Newburgh and 
Marcy, newer varieties which do not have these undesirable character- 
istics. Latham is widely grown; Taylor is highly recommended. Al- 
though good in many respects, both may contract mosaic. June is early 
and ripens over a long season; Chief, a firm, attractive fruit, is popular 
in some localities. 

Ranere (St. Regis) ripens over a long season and is inclined to double 
bearing. Indian Summer, mosaic free and similar in habit to Ranere, 
produces a summer crop inferior to that of most commercial varieties, 
but in the autumn it bears another crop on the tips of the new growth. 
Golden Queen, of the Cuthbert type but yellow in color, is susceptible 
to mosaic. 



560 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



Black Raspberry 

Kansas and Plum Farmer are early. Gregg and Cumberland are 
mid-season varieties. Shuttleworth is an improved chance seedling of 
Plum Farmer which seems to be superior in every way. Bristol and 
Naples are two new varieties which are well worth trial. The ripening 
of Naples follows Bristol and lengthens the season. 

Purple Raspberry 

The dull, unattractive appearance of a purple raspberry is offset by 
the dark red color and rich flavor of the cooked fruit. Sodus and 
Columbian are standard varieties at the present time. Because of 
superior qualities Sodus will replace Columbian as soon as sufficient 
stock is available. 

Blackberry 

Eldorado is one of the best commercial varieties; Early Harvest is 
popular in the South, but it is very susceptible to orange rust; Lawton 
is grown on the Pacific Coast. Marvel is one of the leading varieties in 
Florida, and is promising for the South. Himalaya is important in 
restricted areas on the Pacific Coast, where it is very productive. It is 
easily injured by cold and difficult to train. 

Mammoth, a dewberry hybrid and self-unfruitful, is popular in 
California but not hardy in the East. McDonald, another dewberry 
hybrid, also self-unfruitful, is grown extensively in Texas, Oklahoma, 
and Missouri. It ripens nearly two weeks before the usual blackberry 
season. 

Evergreen is important in Oregon and Washington. It is only par- 
tially hardy in other sections. 

Dewberry 

Gardena is important in California. Lucretia is the standard in 
most sections. Mayes (Austin Mayes) is the leading variety in Texas; 
Premo is grown in North Carolina; Young is popular in Louisiana and 
worthy of trial in the South and on the Pacific Coast. 

The Loganberry is grown extensively in California. It is not known 
whether it is a red sport of the dewberr>% a hybrid with the blackberry, 
or possibb^ with the red raspberry. In any case it is now the name for 
a group rather than that of a particular variety. Members of the group 
are vigorous growers and very productive of large red berries. They are 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 



561 



too sensitive to cold to be grown in the East. The fruit is valuable in 
the fresh state as well as in the canned and dried forms. 

Boysenberry 

Boysenberry (Boydsenberry ) , a result of crosses of the loganberry, 
raspberry, and blackborry, is rapidly gaining favor with the canning 
industry on the Pacific Coast. Although it was released for public sale 
only in 1935, the Boysenberry is being planted in the warmer bramble- 
growing sections. It does not seem to be popular in the northeastern 
area because of its tender growth. Being very prolific and bearing one 
of the largest berries of its type, it is worth trying in the home garden. 

COMMUNITY STUDIES 

1. Determine from the census and other available figures the impor- 
tant areas in the United States and in your own state for growing the 
fruits described in this section. What are the factors that have deter- 
mined these areas? 

2. Which of these fruits are grown commercially in your community? 
What in your opinion are the reasons? 

3. Visit several growers. Determine: 

a. Market served. 

b. Soils, and management before planting. 

c. Preference as to site. 

d. Varieties and source of plants — whether certified. 

e. Planting plan and distances — number of plants per acre. 
/. Time of planting. 

g. Method of planting. 

h. Cultivation practices. 

i. Use of fertilizers — what, when, how? 
Cover crops — kinds, amounts, time of sowing. 

k. Fruiting habits. 
I. Method of pruning and training. 
m. Insects and diseases — eradication or control methods. 
71. Yield second year — third year — mature plantations, 
o. Source and type of pickers — number needed, 
p. Management of pickers — method of payment. 
q. Field picking practices — containers, carriers, crates, handling 

of fruit, 
r. Method of marketing. 
s. Returns. 



562 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



t. Winter protection. 
u. Life of plantation — limiting factors. 

4. Do the facts as obtained from the survey corroborate your judg- 
ment or opinion held before making the survey? Secure if possible com- 
plete cost studies and records on these plantations, or get estimates of 
growers. 

5. Prepare a financial statement for a five-year period, beginning with 
the year of planting, for a five-acre planting. 

6. List your recommendations for improvement of local practices and 
your reasons therefor. 

7. Should the producing area in the section be decreased or increased? 
Why? 

SECTION n. GROWING CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES 

Currants and gooseberries are cool-weather and moisture- 
loving fruits. Heat and drought of summer are of greater con- 
cern than the cold of winter. They are most at home in the 
northeastern United States and Canada. In the South the 
summers are too hot, west of the 100th meridian to the Sierra 
Nevada and Cascade Mountains the rainfall is insufficient, 
and in the Southwest it is both too hot and too dry for best 
development of these fruits. The producing territory tapers 
off without sharp demarcation. Its limits are altered or ex- 
tended somewhat through irrigation, higher altitudes, and 
special factors. 

New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania are 
the leaders in currant production, followed by the northern 
coast counties of California. The gooseberry may be grown 
a little farther south than the currant; the center of production 
is in Illinois, Missouri, and the states adjacent to them north 
and east. New York and Michigan are also important factors 
in production. The fruit of both the currant and gooseberry 
hangs well to the bushes, so that the picking season does not 
come with such a rush as with the other small fruits. 

Jellies, jams, preserves, alone or in combination with other 
fruits, constitute the chief contribution of these fruits to our 
domestic economy. Gooseberry pies are popular where known. 



ESTABLISHING THE PLANTATION 563 



Currants are famous as a source of pectin and for their jelty- 
making properties, but gooseberries are almost as good for 
these purposes, though less commonly used. 

The red currant is the currant of commerce, but the white 
and black types have their special uses. 

Because of their relationship to the white pine blister rust 
of five-needle pines, these fruits should not be cultivated in 
areas where these trees are important, except with most care- 
ful safeguards and the observance of governmental restrictions. 

Consult the state nursery inspector or the state department 
of agriculture before planting currants and gooseberries. Quar- 
antines and restrictive measures are in effect in various sections 
owing to the blister rust situation. These measures are 
changed from time to time. The cultivated black currant is 
considered a special menace. The problem of saving our 
white pines takes front rank as a national issue. Its solution 
requires the cooperation of all good citizens. 

Operations: 

1. Establishing the plantation. 

2. Pruning and training the plants. 

3. Managing the soil. 

4. Controlling diseases and insects. 

5. Harvesting and marketing the crop. 

1. Establishing the Plantation. These fruits bloom very 
early in the spring. Protect them from frost damage by locat- 
ing the plantation where the air circulates freely. This will 
also help in disease control, especially with gooseberries. In 
the southern extensions of the industry, select silt or clay soils 
and the cooler northern exposures to reduce the effect of the 
sun. A deep loam, very fertile and retentive of moisture, is 
the approved type for best results. 

Prepare the soil thoroughly as for garden crops before 
planting, eliminating all grass. Manure or green crops to en- 
rich the soil will be beneficial. 



564 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



Plant in the Fall in Most Sections. As already indicated, 
gro\^i:h starts very early in the spring. Fall-set plants will be 
established and ready to grow at the first coming of open 
weather. If planting in the fall is impossible, then do the 
work at the earliest possible date in the spring. It will often 
be wise to plow the land in the fall so that no time may be 
lost. In the northern states of the mid-western area, spring 
planting may be preferable. 

How Plants Are Obtained, Strong one-year plants from a 
reliable nursery give excellent results. They may be obtained 
at nominal cost, and this is usually the best source from which 
to obtain them. 

Currants root readily from cuttings. Take strong 8- to 
12-inch shoots from the present season^s growth, after the 
leaves drop freely in the fall. Set immediately, 4 to 6 inches 
apart in the nursery row, tamping the soil firmly about them, 
and leaving about two buds above ground. Even better results 
may be secured by burying the shoots bottom end up in a 
sand hill or storing in a cool cellar in moist sand until spring. 
Roots start at the buds underground. Under good conditions 
the plants may be transplanted to the field at the end of one 
growing season, or they may be left one more year in the 
nursery row. 

Some American varieties of gooseberries also propagate 
readily from cuttings. With others and with the English 
varieties, which are also grown in America to some extent, 
mound layering gives much better results. Cut back the 
mother plants very severely in the spring. In midsummer a 
large number of succulent shoots will have formed about the 
base. Cover these shoots half way to the top with clean moist 
soil, working it down about the canes and stubs with a spade 
until a mound has been formed. These shoots will send out 
roots from the base. Remove the rooted shoots at the end of 
the season and plant in nursery rows, or allow them to remain 
in the mound another year, depending upon the vigor of 
growth. Young gooseberry canes will also root if bent down 



ESTABLISHING THE PLANTATION 



565 



and covered with soil, permitting the top to grow upward. For 
home use, the suckers which spring up about the base of the 
old plants may be transplanted. 

In case of nursery plants, open the bundles on arrival and 
heel in, in a cool, sheltered place, until ready for planting. If 
the plants and roots are dry, soak thoroughly for several hours 
Defore heeling in, and wet the soil thoroughly after the opera- 
tion is complete. 

Dark Red Varieties of Currants Are in Greatest Derriand. 
For market purposes select varieties that produce vigorous 
bushes of an erect habit of growth, easy to cultivate and pick. 
Take into account productiveness, size and firmness of fruit, 
and compactness of clusters. Since the entire cluster of fruit 
3 removed, instead of stripping the individual berries, it is 
esirable that sufficient space for the fingers exist between the 
irst fruit on the stem and the parent branch so that the 
fingers may grasp the stem without grasping the fruit. Acid 
varieties are best for jelly making, but since the fruit is best 
picked green for this purpose, nearly any variety picked at the 
proper stage will make good jelly. White currants possess 
limited market value, but are esteemed for dessert use. The 
black currant, so popular in England, has but few devotees 
here, owing perhaps to its strong and peculiar flavor. 

Wilder, Perfection, and Red Lake are probably the best 
commercial varieties grown at present in the Northeastern 
states. The Cherry currant is often a misnomer used for all 
sorts of red currants for want of a better name. The genuine 
Cherry currant, though widely grown, is not so desirable com- 
mercially as some other varieties. 

To this list may be added London Market for the Midwest 
and Pacific Coast. All are hardy, with the exception of Wilder, 
even in the coldest sections of the United States. 

White Grape and White Imperial are the leading white 
varieties. Boskoop Giant, Champion, and Naples are black 
varieties. 

Practically all commercial varieties of currants and goose- 



566 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



berries are self -fruitful and therefore no provision need be 
made for cross-pollination. 

Both American and English Gooseberries Are Grown, The 
former are, as a rule, more productive, hardier, more resistant 
to mildew, and are usually considered to be of better quality. 
The fruit of the English varieties runs larger in size, and there- 




FiG. 239. This shows the distribution of the 
fruit on the currant wood. The largest fruit ia 
on wood not over three years old. 



fore commands a higher price. The custom in this country is to 
pick and use gooseberries while green. If permitted to ripen, 
many American varieties are of excellent quality. In Europe 
the gooseberry is commonly permitted to ripen and is eaten out 
of hand as a dessert fruit. Downing, Houghton, and Poorman 
among American varieties, and Chautauqua, Columbus, and 
Industry of the European sorts have given best results thus 



PRUNING AND TRAINING THE PLANTS 567 



far. Some Canadian thornless varieties are being tested and 
may prove desirable. 

Plant at Such Distances as to Permit of Horse or Tractor 
Cultivation, This is for economy of labor. Allow 8 feet between 
rows for the team or tractor or 6 feet for cultivation with a 
single horse. Plants are 4 to 6 feet apart, depending on the 
vigor of the variety and its habit of growth, in standard 
practice. Set the plants deeply, furrowing out the rows in one 
direction and finishing with the shovel. Follow the usual pre- 
cautions for protection of the roots from sun and wind. 

In the Hudson River Valley in New York, currants are com- 
monly set between grape rows and also beneath the vines, all 
cultivation being done with a single horse or by hand. In 
other sections, they are frequently planted between fruit trees. 
A moderate amount of shade does not seem to interfere with 
productivity, as long as the fertility of the soil is maintained. 

2. Pruning and Training the Plants. Currants and goose- 
berries are usually trained to the bush form. The best fruit 
is generally borne on one-^ two-, and three-year wood; there- 
fore wood older than this should be removed. Fruit is borne 
laterally on the one-year shoots and branches and on spurs of 
the two- and three-year-old wood. Although fruit is borne on 
spurs of older wood, it is generally smaller and poorer in 
quality. 

After the first yearns growth, any weak, slender, or low- 
lying shoots should be removed, leaving from six to eight strong 
shoots per plant. After the second yearns growth, thin out the 
new shoots, leaving three or four. After the third yearns 
growth, leave three or four new shoots and thin out three or 
four of the three-year-old branches. After this pruning there 
will be three or four three-year-old branches, three or four 
two-year-old branches, and three or four one-year-old shoots 
to bear the crop during the fourth year. From this time on 
remove all branches over three years old or those which have 
borne two crops from spurs and replace these by leaving three 
or four of the strongest new shoots. 



568 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



Gooseberries often bear much more heavily on one-year-old 
shoots than currants do, and as a result in some sections the 
wood is removed after it is two years old, or after it has borne 
one year from spurs. Many growers, however, follow the 
pruning methods described for currants. 

3. Managing the Soil. Give frequent and shallow cultiva- 
tion. The roots are usually close to the surface. Cultivate 
more deeply the first year than later. The disk harrow on land 
free from stones gives good results. The horse or grape hoe 
will reduce hand work. 

Crops may be grown between the rows and between the 
plants in the rows, if the situation is such as to make this a 
profitable method. The question is whether the increase in 
labor costs in handling the plantation will be more than offset 
by the returns from the crops. Unless land is too valuable, it 
is probable that such crops might better be grown on a separate 
field. On the other hand, it is possible that the fruit will re- 
ceive better care if such intercrops are used. Garden crops 
require thorough cultivation and those for which there is a 
market should be considered. 

After the first two years, the fruit plants will need the 
space. Continue the frequent cultivations. Follow with a 
cover or green manure crop of such nature as to work into the 
soil readily, since deep plowing is out of the question. Buck- 
wheat, soy beans, oats, barley, and sweet clover are among the 
suitable crops. 

Mulching may be substituted for cultivation in growing on 
a small scale. The mulch keeps the soil moist, which favors 
development of the bushes. To be effective, it must be main- 
tained from year to year. Mice frequently girdle the shoots. 
This fact, in addition to the expense of the mulch, constitutes 
the chief disadvantages in its use. 

Bush Fruits Usually Respond Well to Applications of 
Manure. There is very little experimental evidence available 
relative to the kinds or amounts of commercial fertilizer which 
should be applied to currants and gooseberries. "Wherever 



HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE CROP 



569 



tests have been made, barnyard manure has generally been 
equal or superior to commercial fertilizers, especially with 
gooseberries. Where manure is applied, from 8 to 10 tons 
per acre should be used yearly. If plenty of manure is avail- 
able at a low price, it will no doubt pay to use more, but 
if cover crops are turned under each year, less manure will 
be needed. Many growers add wood ashes, 800 to 1000 pounds, 
and 100 pounds of muriate of potash per acre in addition to 
the manure. In some sections from 500 to 800 pounds per 
acre of a fertilizer anatyzing 4 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent 
phosphoric acid, and 4 per cent potash are used apparently 
with good results. 

It may pay bush fruit growers to test the different fertilizer 
elements, singly, and in various combinations in a small way on 
their own farms. In the absence of specific experimental data 
for the various regions general recommendations may not 
apply and may involve both waste of time and money. 

4. Controlling Diseases and Insects. Leaf Spot and Pow- 
dery Mildew are sometimes destructive. Among insects the 
San Jose scale, the currant worm and the currant aphis are 
important. Follow the control program for the region in which 
the planting is located. 

5. Harvesting and Marketing the Crop. Harvest currants 
while still somewhat green for jelly, but for other purposes 
they should be ripe. The pectin content which promotes the 
formation of jelly is higher in the unripe fruit. For other 
purposes pick them while still firm and only when dry. The 
picking season extends over a longer period than for the other 
small fruits. Remove the entire cluster, grasping the stem 
between the cane and the first currant on the stem, taking care 
not to press the berries. The cluster can usually be removed 
best with the thumb and two fingers. Quart baskets and 24- 
or 32-quart crates for general market and 6- or 8-pound grape 
baskets for the cannery are standard. 

The currant may be held a short time in cold storage, but it 
soon molds if the air is damp. A dry, airy place is best. 



570 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



Pick gooseberries after they reach full size, but before they 
are fully ripe. When Americans use them more as a dessert 
fruit, then the English method of permitting them to reach full 
maturity before harvesting will be followed. Wear leather 
gloves for protection from thorns. 

Strip the fruit from the bushes for the canning factory. 
Run it through an ordinary grain fanning mill to remove 
leaves and refuse. Some growers prefer to use a scoop similar 
to a cranberry scoop for picking. 

For the general market and retail trade, stripping causes 
too much injury to the berries. Grow the larger varieties and 
pick them by holding the cane in one gloved hand and remov- 
ing the fruit with the other, also protected by a glove excepting 
the ends of the fingers. 

Keep gooseberries out of the sun as they scald or discolor 
very quickly. Packages are the same as for currants, except- 
ing that third- or half-bushel baskets are commonly used for 
canning stock. 

Bushes Begin to Bear after the First Year's Growth and 
Should Reach Full Bearing at Four or Five Years of Age. In 
Northern sections on the heavier loams and under good treat- 
ment, including regular pruning, plantations yield profitable 
crops for ten to twenty years. In the Southern sections, and 
on sandy soils — unfavorable conditions of soil and climate — 
their life is much less. The grower may expect 100 to 150 
bushels per acre from gooseberries, and higher yields in the 
best years. Yields of currants are rather less and are often 
more variable. 

The plants need no winter protection. However, in sec- 
tions subject to continuous drying winds, a windbreak is de- 
sirable. In regions of heavy snowfall, tie the canes together 
in an erect position in the fall so that the snow may not force 
them into a prostrate position, inconvenient for tillage and 
picking. 



GROWING THE CULTIVATED BLUEBERRY 



571 



COMMUNITY STUDIES 

1. Prepare a brief covering the life history and control methods of 
white pine blister rust. 

2. From this point follow the outline under local studies for the 
brambles. 

3. On what age of wood is fruit borne — the best fruit? Prune at least 
two currant and two gooseberry bushes. 

SECTION III. GROWING THE CULTIVATED BLUEBERRY 

Growing blueberries under cultivation is a comparatively 
new practice. Unlike most of our common fruits, unimproved 
strains of wild blueberries are sold in direct competition with 
the cultivated varieties. Cultivated fruit may, however, be 
found on almost any wholesale market in Northeastern United 
States. Both the high- and low-bush forms of the blueberry 
or huckleberry, as it is sometimes called, are found growing 
wild in Northeastern United States as well as in Florida, 
Michigan, Illinois, and to some extent along the West Coast. 

The fruit is used in the fresh state, but one of its chief 
values is for blueberry pie, a luxury that to foreign tables 
typifies American cooking. 

Under the supervision of Dr. Coville, the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture began collecting wild strains in 1906. 
By cooperating with experienced pickers in blueberry districts, 
and with the owners of large patches, he was able to select 
several plants which possessed desired qualities. He looked for 
stiffness of branch, ease of picking, small dry stem scars, 
flavor, seedlessness, and keeping qualities. By controlled 
breeding and selecting he eventually concentrated as many as 
possible of these qualities in a single plant. At one time 
three hundred seedlings which were producing fruit larger 
than % inch in diameter were destroyed because they lacked 
some of the other desired qualities. As a result of this work 
we have about ten good varieties. Although some of them are 
not so sweet as some wild strains, as a group they constitute 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 




(17. S. D, A.) 
Fig. 240. A quart of wild blueberries. 




(Z7. S. D. A.) 

Fig. 241. A quart of hybrid blueberries. 
Contrast with Fig. 240. 



ESTABLISHING THE PLANTATION 



573 



a collection of the best qualities which the plant breeders have 
obtained in fifty years of plant improvement. 

Operations : 

1. Selecting the soil. 

2. Establishing the plantation. 

3. Pruning the plants. 

4. Controlling insects, diseases, and birds. 

5. Harvesting and marketing. 

1. Selecting the Soil. The ideal blueberry soil is fertile, 
well drained and aerated, acid, and well supplied with organic 
matter, and it has a plentiful water supply. Any soil in which 
wild blueberries grow is satisfactory for the cultivated crop. 
It may be improved by the addition of peaty material, mois- 
ture, or drainage. Any moist sandy loam can be made into 
a good blueberry soil with the addition of the proper organic 
fertilizers. Heavy clay soils are not satisfactory. 

The pH of soils for best growth should be between 4.4 and 
5.1. Sulfur, aluminum sulfate, sawdust, apple pomace, rotted 
wood, and acid peat have been used to produce acid soil condi- 
tions. Some are only good for back yard production. Rotted 
oak leaves are used most commonly. 

The v/ater table in a blueberry field is of vital importance 
to the success of the crop. If the land is wet, it should be 
drained so that the water table will remain about 14 inches 
below the surface. Lack of moisture reduces fruit bud forma- 
tion; too much moisture will cause the leaves to fall off and 
the plant to die. The plants will tolerate standing water in 
the dormant season, but during the growing season an excess 
amount of water is fatal. 

2. Establishing the Plantation. The soil should be well 
cultivated, the low spots either filled up or drained. If it is 
allowed to lie fallow for the first year, disking will help to 
control the weeds. 

Two-year-old blueberry plants may be obtained from any 
nursery that specializes in growing them. If well grown, they 



574 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



should develop fruiting growth in two more years. It is much 
cheaper in establishing a large acreage of blueberries, however, 
to buy one-year-old plants. The method of propagation is 
covered in Chapter VII. 

Cabot is an early variety and a good producer. It has a 
spreading habit. Bubel^ Rancocas, and Katharine are later 
varieties which are more upright in stature. Pioneer, Concord, 




(N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.) 



Fig. 242. Blueberries, showing planting plan and method of cultivation. 
These have been planted about 4 feet apart in rows which are 8 feet 

apart. 

and Jersey are all worthy of mention. They have a much bet- 
ter flavor than Sam, Rubel, and June. Although the varieties 
all appear to be self-fertile it is believed that better crops can 
be obtained by using more than one variety in the same 
planting. 

Plant as early as possible in the spring to take advantage 
of moisture. Various recommendations are given for distances, 
the average being about 6 feet apart on the square (Fig. 242). 



PRUNING THE PLANTS 575 

The holes should be made large enough so that the root system 
will not be disturbed in planting; peat moss may be incorpo- 
rated with the soil around the roots of the young plant. 

After planting, the area around each plant should be 
heavily mulched with peat moss or decayed oak leaves. 

An application of mixed fertilizer at the rate of 500 pounds 
to the acre is sufficient to promote good growth for the first 
few years. Insufficient experiments have been carried out to 
obtain any uniform recommendations. Increasing amounts of 

balanced fertilizers as the 
plants increase in size is all 
that can be advised at this 
time. 

With the use of heavy 
applications of mulch three 
or four shallow cultivations 
are sufficient to keep the 
soil in good condition dur- 
ing one season. 

3. Pruning the Plants. 
Pruning the high-bush blue- 
berry when it is grown 
under cultivation is a very 
important practice because 
this operation very largely 
controls the size of the 
fruit. 

The different habits of growth of different varieties influ- 
ence the type of pruning. The fruit is always borne on the 
previous season's growth. The aim, therefore, is to invigorate 
new growth, and this is done by removing a great deal of the 
old wood. 

For the first two years after planting, all that is necessary 
is to remove the bushy growth and flower buds. The fourth 
year, severe pruning should be started (Figs. 244, 245, 246, 
247, 248, 249). One or two of the oldest trunks should be cut 




(N, J. Agr. Exp. JSta.) 



Fig. 243. Showing position of fruit 
and leaf buds and amount of heading 
back needed. Varieties are Cabot 
and Sam. 



576 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



{N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.) {N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 244. Rancocas after two years in Fig. 245. Rancocas pruned. 



the field. 




(N. J. Agr, Fxp. ISta.) 
Fig. 246. Cabot in bearing which has been well pruned. 



CONTROLLING INSECTS, DISEASES AND BIRDS 577 



back to stumps, about 2 inches long at the crown. This will 
cause new shoots to start. Each year about a third of the 
oldest wood is removed; thus none of the wood in the bush is 
ever more than three or four years old. This is only a general 
rule to follow. If heavy sprout growth takes place from the 
old wood, a different type of pruning is advised. The low 
branches are removed because the fruit may become dirty 
from splashing soil during rains or from wind-blown debris. 
Crowding branches in the 
middle of the bush should 
be removed. This will ex- 
pose the fruiting wood to 
more sunlight and give 
more even ripening of the 
fruit as well as easier 
picking. 

The older and larger 
blueberry bushes must 
have considerable ^^tip- 
ping'' donjB to the terminal 
growth. The fruit buds 
are much plumper than 
the leaf buds. Each bud 
wdll produce from eight to 
fourteen berries, if prop- 
erly pollinated. New 
shoots do not need much 
tipping back, but the laterals on the older branches should be 
cut back to three or four fruit buds. 

If plants are neglected they will reach a stage where no 
vigorous growth takes place. Cut back the entire top to the 
crown in the spring. A new bush will grow that summer, and 
the following year a crop of fruit will be borne. 

Prune in early spring. 

4. Controlling Insects, Diseases and Birds. If the bushes 
are pruned annually and kept growing vigorously, there is 




(N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 247. Cabot in bearing that has 
not been pruned. Compare with 
Fig. 246. 



578 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 




{Mass. Agr. Exp. JSta,) 
Fig. 248. Pioneer before pruning. 




(Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta.) 
Fig. 249. Pioneer after pruning. 



very little danger from insect and disease injury. Stem borers 
are reported in Massachusetts and New Jersey. They are 
controlled by removing and burning affected parts at picking 
time. A few other enemies, as the blueberry fruit fly, Japanese 
beetle, cranberry fruit worm, red-striped fireworm, red-humped 
caterpillars, twig blight, and ^^mummied fruit^' have been 



HARVESTING AND MARKETING 



579 



known to attack the blueberry. If any of these become serious, 
consult the local experiment station. 

Birds are very bothersome on small plantings. The only 
satisfactory way to control them is to cover the bushes with 
cheesecloth. 




(N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.) 

Fig. 250. Rubel in its fourth summer in the field. 



5. Harvesting and Marketing. Pick the fruit once a week 
under normal conditions. The fruit must be blue for about a 
week before it is ripe. The ripened fruit is blue close up to the 
stem. The clusters ripen unevenly and therefore the season 
lasts from three to seven weeks. The average yield for New 
Jersey is 1600 quarts per acre. 



580 



GROWING BUSH FRUITS 



Berries are usually picked into pint and quart boxes 
(Fig. 250) and packed into crates, like strawberries or rasp- 
berries. Sometimes they are picked into pails and later trans- 
ferred to boxes for marketing. All the leaves, twigs, and 
shriveled berries are removed and the well-rounded boxes 
covered with cellophane. Blueberries will keep in cold storage 
for about two weeks and can be shipped long distances with- 
out deterioration. 



CHAPTER XV 



SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER? 

Unlike many types of agricultural production, fruit grow- 
ing is decidedly a long-term proposition. In contrast, the 
individual deriving a major part of his income from annual 
crops may usually change to crops other than those which he 
has been growing, provided that there is indication that the 
change will be more profitable. Such is not the case with the 
fruit farmer, for once the fruit plantation is established, only 
through a sacrifice of values, capital and effort, can he change 
his field of endeavor. Were it possible to look into the future 
at sufficient length, many of the problems and hazards asso- 
ciated with fruit growing would be eliminated. The long 
period which usually exists between the planting and harvest- 
ing of a fruit crop tends to intensify the risks w^hich the indi- 
vidual engaged in this type of agriculture must take. There 
is every need for the closest consideration of the factors which 
may affect the profit-making ability of the enterprise. The 
multitude of situations over which there is no control serves 
but to emphasize the necessity for careful investigation of all 
available information in guiding one^s decisions in the selec- 
tion of a vocation. 

The potential fruit farmer should not be content to base 
his decisions in choosing a vocation solely on the probability 
of financial return. To be sure, this is very important, but 
few men have the will power to make a success of a business 
in which they have no personal interest. The following ques- 
tions should be answered: 

1. Have I a sincere personal interest in the problems con- 
cerned with the management and operation of a fruit farm? 

581 



582 



SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER? 



2. Can I expect over a long period that the enterprise will 
pay me a reasonable return in proportion to the labor and 
capital expended? 

Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the importance of 
the first question. Too often, the anticipation of monetary 
income tends to overshadow the personal element involved in 
the selection of an occupation. Income takes many forms. 
Reasonable satisfaction in the work and the job, the oppor- 
tunity to do the things one likes to do are not to be under- 
rated. There is not much point in seeking the answer to the 
second question until the answer to the first is known. If the 
individual is undecided, he would do well to work on a good 
fruit farm before going further with his analysis of the sit- 
uation. 

- Perhaps the individual is faced with the choice of many oc- 
cupations. It is possible that he believes that fruit growing is 
the thing he likes best. How then, can he be fairly sure that 
this is the type of agriculture that he will most enjoy? Per- 
haps a fair answer to a series of key questions would assist 
in putting him on the right track. 

1. Is my interest in fruit grovnng based on actual eX" 
perience? 

The chances are that a person who has spent a part or all 
of his life on a fruit farm will be in the most advantageous 
position when it comes to determining whether or not his 
enthusiasm is well founded. However, this does not mean 
that the person who has had no great amount of experience 
cannot hope to make a success of the enterprise. There is 
every reason, however, why he should arrange to spend a sea- 
son or better still three of four seasons on an up-to-date fruit 
farm to determine his aptitude and liking for the work. 

2. How does my interest in fruit growing compare with 
my interest in other agricultural enterprises^ i.e., dairy farm- 
ing , poultry raising, production of cash crops, etc.? 

Here, again, the experience in any given field is likely to 
have resulted in certain prejudices for or against certain farm 



SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER? 



583 



enterprises. This may be advantageous. The young man 
who has a keen dislike for hens certainly would not be con- 
tent raising poultry even though there was considerable 
promise of profit in the field. Undoubtedly, many have left 
the farm for what appeared to be greater attractions in the city 
who would have remained in agriculture could they have found 
a phase which held the necessary attraction for them. 

3. Would I be willing to undergo cheerfully the limitations 
connected with fruit production? 

In the cultivation of fruit, as in practically all other agri- 
cultural pursuits, there are times when one has to sacrifice 
hours of leisure when the majority of the population is at rest 
to attend to the needs of the enterprise. While fruit growing 
may not be so confining as dairy farming, there are periods 
when the hours are as long, the work as hard, and the tasks as 
repetitious. The finished product may be beautiful and de- 
lightful, but it involves many hours of labor and sweat and 
uncertainty. 

It has been said that a good teacher can determine a stu- 
dent^s aptitude for an enterprise by the manner in which the 
student appraises its products. Given an apple, the recipient 
is likely to have one of two things in mind — ^the quality of the 
fruit and the care used in producing it, or what it will do for 
his stomach. The man with a love of fruit growing in his 
heart will see the orchard in bloom and all the various opera- 
tions that lie between. He will have a fine regard for the 
finished product. 

The objective to this point has been primarily to assist 
the individual in determining the origin of and subsequently 
the soundness of his conclusion as to choice of occupation. 
With this analysis completed, it is in order to turn our atten- 
tion to the second consideration, ^^Can I expect to make a 
reasonable living through the production of fruit crops This 
may be considered under several headings and from several 
standpoints. 



584 



SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER? 



The gross income of fruit farmers is often higher than that 
of farmers engaged in other types of agriculture (assuming 
comparable investments), but so are the expenses. It must be 
remembered that it is not the gross return but rather the mar- 
gin of profit which determines the final or net income from the 
enterprise. As an illustration, the following figures obtained 
from New York State farms on which cost accounts were kept 
from 1934 to 1937 inclusive are of interest. Compiled by the 
New York State College of Agriculture, they show average 
gross returns, costs, and margins above costs of various fruits 
and of fruits as a whole compared with comparable units of 
certain other crops. Apple prices were perhaps unusually low 
at the time. Since fruit growing is such a long-time under- 
taking, comparsions over a more extended period, perhaps ten 
years, would be more reliable. 





Gross 
Returns 


Costs 


Margins 


Fruits 










$126 


$117 


$ 9 




223 


118 


105 




66 


45 


21 




54 


52 


2 


Average, 4 fruits 


$117 


$ 83 


$ 34 


Cash Crops 










$95 


$69 


$26 




39 


41 


-2 


Potatoes 


96 


84 


12 


Canning tomatoes 


100 


83 


17 


Average 


$83 


$69 


$14 



* Three years, 1935-37. 

Capital. Planting and caring for an orchard properly until 
it begins to yield a return at least sufficient to meet current 



CAPITAL 



585 



expenses require considerable capital as well as patience. The 
time which must elapse between planting and bearing will vary 
with the type and variety of fruit and with the location of the 
orchard. 

Time Elapsing Between Planting and Bearing Stage of Common 



If the grower plants his own orchard, his capital must be 
tied up for some time before he can expect returns. Few 
are likely to be so fortunate as to have capital to carry over 
to production, which means that some other source of income 
must be available during the intervening period. 

The preceding paragraph should serve to point out the 
need for a considerable amount of capital at the outset or 
reasonable assurance that there will be some additional source 
of income during the non-bearing stage. Good soil is impera- 
tive. It would be folly to buy cheap land with the idea that 
costs could be kept down. It has been found that a definite 
correlation exists between type of soil, size of orchard, and 
labor income. As labor incomes tend to increase with in- 
creased acreage on good soil, so does labor income tend to 
decrease when an attempt is made to increase acreage on poor 
soil. 

One point has thus far not been mentioned, namely, the 
advisability of purchasing an orchard which has already 
reached the bearing stage. This has some advantages. Or- 
chard land generally has shown some decline in value during 
the past ten years. There is some evidence that a young or- 
chard surrounded by reasonably good conditions might be an 
economical purchase. However, it is essential that the buyer 
spend some time in determining the reasons behind an offer for 
sale. A desire on the part of an individual to sell may not 



Fruits 



Apples. 
Pears . . 
Cherries 
Peaches , 



7-15 years Raspberries. 

7-15 Strawberries 

5-8 " Grapes 

3-5 " 



2- 3 years 

1+ " 

3- " 



586 



SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER? 



always be caused by failure to make a profit, and, conversely, 
it may be that the type of soil, variety of trees, etc., make the 
possibility of converting the business into a profitable enter- 
prise out of the question. The value of experience behind the 
planting of a new orchard or the purchase of a ^^going concern" 
cannot be underestimated. It is most essential if the indi- 
vidual is to judge fairly what he is getting for his money. 

The original capital investment cannot be neglected in com- 
puting the cost of producing the fruit. High land values can 
be as instrumental in eating up profits as any other one factor. 
While it does not pay to buy poor land, it is equally important 
to ^^get your money's w^orth." 

Cost of Production. Though the price which fruit is to 
bring can hardly be estimated with any degree of accuracy, 
there is some possibility that the cost of producing the fruit 
can be determined fairly well. This is true because some ex- 
penses w^ill occur each year with little variation. They are as 
important as they are unavoidable, and they serve, in more 
cases than not, to determine the financial success or failure 
of the enterprise. Since they vary little, and certainly, over a 
short period, show little relationship to the fluctuations in the 
income, the expenses are commonly termed '^fixed costs." They 
are 

1. Interest on investment. 

2. Depreciation. 

3. Taxes. 

4. Insurance. 

Interest on investment reflects the original cost of the 
land. While interest rates have shown some decline over the 
past 80 years, the value of the land has increased suSiciently 
to more than outweigh this advantage. Land is but a part of 
the total investment. A significant part of the permanent capi- 
tal is tied up in buildings and equipment. It is of equal im- 
portance that the interest on the money used to carry these 
items also be included. 



PURCHASING POWER 



587 



Depreciation takes place on the trees after they have 
reached maturity as well as on the buildings and equipmento 
Conservative rates for estimating these costs are: 

Trees: 3-8 percent, depending on the kind of fruit and the 
probable length of profitable bearing. 

Buildings: 3-5 percent, computed on cost. 
Equipment: 10 percent, computed on cost. 

While these costs may not necessarily represent an equiva- 
lent outlay of cash, they must be considered if a fair estimate 
of the net income from the enterprise is to be obtained. Re- 
member that interest on investment represents only a fair 
return on capital if it were placed in some other business. It 
is intended that charges made for depreciation will, over the 
estimated period of useful life, equal the original cost of the 
item. It is not fair to consider the purchase of a sprayer as 
an expense of the year purchased, and neither is it just to 
consider it an expense of the year when it is discarded. The 
cost can be allocated fairly only over the period of actual use. 

Taxes and insurance, in contrast to interest and deprecia- 
tion, represent actual outlays of cash. Neither shows any 
short-run relationship to the commodity sold. 

The bulk of the variable expenses assumed by the orchard- 
ist each year relate to labor, fertilizer and spray materials, 
and marketing supplies. Each requires an actual cash outlay. 
There is a minimum of expenses below which no orchard can 
be kept in condition. It is difficult to determine how much 
should be paid out for these items without knowing what the 
returns will be. It is not good business to spend more on 
packaging the fruit than can be expected in return. On the 
other hand, the long-run value of turning out a top pack of 
fruit and building a reputation thereby may serve to repay 
the grower many fold for a large initial outlay. 

Purchasing Power. The fruit farmer, like any business 
man who is engaged in the production of products for resale, 
can be financially successful only when the relationship be- 



688 



SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER? 



tween the things he sells and the things he buys is to his ad- 
vantage. This is known as purchasing power. The apple 
producer is not so much interested in the price of the fruit as 
he is in the number of bushels of apples or crates of berries 













1 






























-Apple 


Prices 


































\ 

\ 

_ \ 
















N 






✓ 








V 


Taxes 












/ 1^ 

4-i- 


4— 








A 




\ 
\ 

\ 
\ 

> 














1 f 

/ / 
// 


\ , 

Y 


\ 


A 






\ 




^ 

> — 










y 




A 
f \ 




\ 


f 




\ 


/'Farm 


Wages 










/ 


1 
1 
1 












\Y 
\\- 
















1 

✓ 












\ \ 






























- 


\/ / 
V 




^ — 













































































































































J910 1912 1914 1916 1918 1920 1922 1924 1926 1928 1930 1932 1934 1936 1938 

Fig. 25L The relationship of apple prices to taxes and wages determines 
to a large degree how high these prices really are. 



it will take to pay the taxes, to purchase a spray rig, or to 
buy a sack of flour. It has been pointed out that there are 
certain fixed costs which over a period of a few years do not 
vary significantly. It does stand to reason then that the fruit 



PURCHASING POWER 



589 



grower is interested in the price which he can get but only so 
far as it will tend to give him a greater advantage in paying 
for the things which he buys. Figure 251 will serve to point 
this out. It details the relationship between the farm price 
of apples, taxes per acre of farm real estate, and farm wage 
rates in Pennsylvania for the following periods: apple prices, 
1910-38; taxes, 1913-37; wage rates, 1911-38, taking apple 
prices and wage rates as 100 from 1910 to 1914 inclusive 
and taxes as 100 in 1913. The information was compiled by the 
Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station. 

Taxes on farm real estate show very little relationship to 
the price of apples. It will be noted that in 1921, when apple 
prices were at the peak for the 29-year period, taxes were not 
comparatively as high. In contrast, taxes reached their high 
point in 1931, one year prior to the low point in the price of 
apples. 

Farm wage rates present a somewhat different picture. 
There is a marked correlation between the cost of farm labor 
and apple prices. Wages do not fluctuate so violently and tend 
to lag a year or two behind changes in apple prices. It can 
be expected that orchardists w^ould use less labor in years fol- 
lowing low prices and somewhat more labor in years follow- 
ing high prices. 

To a significant degree, the relationship existing between 
farm wages and apple prices is representative of many vari- 
able costs. Conversely, the lack of correlation between tax 
rates and apple prices may be considered representative of 
fixed costs. The conclusion may be drawn that the constant 
expenses in fruit production are the ones which are likely to 
create financial problems in the face of low farm prices. This 
further emphasizes the need to keep fixed costs at a minimum 
through careful planning at the time the young fruit farmer 
goes into business. 

The purchasing power of individual commodities tends to 
be affected more by the price which that product brings than 
by the cost of producing the product. That is, there are cer- 



590 



SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER? 



tain fixed costs in all the agricultural industries which vary 
little, one from the other. On the other hand, the prices which 
farmers get for their products may vary considerably among 
those items which are produced for sale. 

The price of peaches in a given year may be fairly high 
because of a late frost in Georgia while a surplus of apples 
may have caused the unit value of that crop to be low. Even 
more pronounced may be the spread existing between fruit, 
truck crops, and dairy products. It must be remembered that 
these differences in price are yearly phenomena. All agri- 
cultural products tend to follow each other in price relation- 
ships over a long period. It is doubtful that any one crop 
possesses any particular advantage over a long span of years. 

Diversification. This brings us to the consideration of the 
advisability of planting more than one crop. The advantages 
of such a program are twofold. 

1. It gives the young orchardist who is planting his own 
orchard an opportunity to derive some cash income until his 
trees reach the bearing stage. 

2. It contributes considerably to uniformity of income by 
reducing the risk of crop failures and low prices. 

Diversification tends to take some of the gamble out of 
fruit raising. The grower is not ^'putting all his eggs in one 
basket." However, there are some factors which tend to 
limit the number and types of enterprises which a farmer can 
handle economically. Care must be taken to choose those 
enterprises which do not confiict with one another in receiving 
the attention which they demand. The units must be large 
enough to permit economical operation. The commodities to 
be produced should be ones which can be raised profitably in 
the area. Many fruit growers in western New York raise 
feeder lambs and beef cattle, not because the return from 
these enterprises is high but because they are making a little 
money this way that would not be obtained otherwise. In- 
direct benefits may be derived even though no actual cash 
profit is made. 



SUMMARY 



591 



Summary. It is important, then, that the young man who 
is contemplating the production of fruit crops as his life work 
consider carefully the following factors: 

1. The basis of his interest in the work. 

2. The capital requirements. 

3. Planting a new orchard vs, purchasing one already 
established. 

4. Factors affecting the margin of profit. 

5. Prices in terms of purchasing power. 

6. Possibilities of diversification, its effects on purchasing 
power. 

He must line up the fields in which he entertains some 
interest squarely before him and subject them to careful 
analysis. The age of trial and error is over in establishing 
orchards. Unprofitable orchard sites are being abandoned 
for those which have proved their worth. With increasing 
costs of fruit production, with no corresponding increase in 
prices, the margin of profit shows a tendency to diminish. 
In spite of this, opportunity remains for him who chooses a 
favorable site in a suitable region and farms intelligently to 
make a good living from this enterprise. 

It is evident that the efforts of the fruit farmer will be 
directed toward the type of production which will yield him 
the maximum return. He is not interested so much in gross 
receipts or expenses taken independently as in the margin 
which exists between the two. This is his profit. This is the 
thing that can be exchanged for the goods which serve to pro- 
vide him with some of the necessities and satisfactions of life. 
Before most other things, he must be certain that he will obtain 
a maximum degree of enjoyment from the work he is doing. 
This last point is worthy of stressing over and over again. 
Large profits cannot be expected from agriculture. This makes 
it all the more important that the individual find satisfaction 
in its pursuits. There will be years when that, in itself, will 
constitute the chief return from his labor. 



APPENDIX 



SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF SOME OF THE SPECIES OF OUR 

COMMON FRUITS 



Common Name 

Apple 

European or Common American 
Pear 

Chinese or Sand Pear 

Snow Pear (grown somewhat in 

Europe for cider) 
Quince 
Peach 
Nectarine 
Apricot 

European Plums 

a. The common plum such as 

Green Gage and Itahan 
prune 

b. The Damsons and others 

American Plums 

a. Found from Maine to Flor- 

ida and east of Rocky 
Mountains from Mexico 
to Canada. 

b. Especially suited to south- 

em states but also grown 
in North. 

c. Especially suited to colder 

regions. 

d. Important in South 
Japanese Plum 

The Sour Cherry 
The Sweet Cherry 



Scientific Name 

Pyrus malus 

Pyrus communis 
Pyrus serotina 

Pyrus nivalis 
Cydonia oblonga 
Prunus persica 

Prunus persica var nucipersica 
Prunus armeniaca 



Prunus domestica 
Prunus insititia 



Prunus Americana 



Prunus hortulana 

Prunus nigra 
Prunus munsoniana 
Prunus salicina 
Prunus cerasus 
Prunus avium 



593 



594 



APPENDIX 



Common Name 

The Duke Cherry 

The Southern Grape (musca- 
dine) 

The Eastern Grape 

Old World Grape (grown on the 

Pacific slope) 
European Red Raspberry 
American Red Raspberry 
Black Raspberry 
Purple Raspberry 

American Blackberry 

Dewberry 

a. From Maine westward and 
southward 

6. Southern Dewberry 
c. Western Dewberry 

Red Currants 

a. Common Red or garden 

Currant 

b. Northern Red Currant 
Black Currant 

American Gooseberry 
European Gooseberry 
Strawberry 
High Blueberry 
Low Blueberry 
Large Cranberry 
Small Cranberry 



Scientific Name 
• Prunus cerasus, 
crossed with 
Prunus avium 

Vitis rotundifolia 
' Vitis labrv^ca 
or 

. Labrusca crosses 

Vitris vinifera 
Rubus idaeus 
Rubus strigosus 
Rubus occidentalis 
Rubus neglectus (hybrid red and 
black raspberries) 
' Rubus argutus, 
' Rubus allegheniensis 
and other species 

' Rubus flagellaris, 
and 

. Rubus invisus 
Rubu^ trivialis 
Rubus vitijolius 



Ribes sativum 

Ribes rubrum 

Ribes nigrum 

Ribes hirtellum 

Ribes grossularia 

Fragaria chiloensis virginiana 

Vaccinium corymbosum 

Vaccinium pennsylvanicum 

Vaccinium macrocarpon 

Vaccinium oxycoccus 



INDEX 



A 

Accessories, spraying, 330, 342 
Age and grade of trees for plant- 
ing, 183 
Agencies, marketing, 79 
Agitator, sprayer, 321 
Air chamber, 315 

Annual bearing as affected by thin- 
ning fruit, 447 
Apple, advisability of storing, 51 
autumn prices of varieties in 

N. Y. City, 101 
barrel, 18 

specifications of, 19 
baskets, 18, 20 
box, specifications of, 20 
boxes, 18 
by-products, 105 
cartons, 21 

chain stores as sellers of, 93 
cold-storage holdings of, 32 
Community Studies, harvesting, 

storing and marketing, 150 
comparative retail prices in N. Y. 

City 1937-38, 94 
comparative sales, N. Y. City 

1937-38, 85 
consumers' demand for, in N. Y. 

City, 103 
cooperative sales of, 73 
crop, quality of, and package, 17 
determining grades and sizes to 

be made in packing, 21 

595 



Apple, determining package to use. 
17 

direct sales by grower, 72 
equipment for harvest, 5 
estimating yield, 2 
export, by type of container, 109 
export markets, 108 
export methods of sale, 110 
export requirements, 109 
fertilizers, 431 

formation of fruit buds, 215 
freight rates on, from various sec- 
tions, 99 
fruiting habits, 210 
grades of, as affected by soils, 172 
grading, 33 

grading atid branding laws, 21 
grading records in Michigan 

orchards, 26 
harvesting costs, 50 
income of family and quantities 

purchased in N. Y. City 

1937-38, 83 
Institute, 74 

National, 74 
labor for harvest, 10 
loading cars, 95 

margins of retail agencies in sell- 
ing in N. Y. City 1937-38, 
86 

market preferences, and prices, 
98 

and tendencies as influencing 
package, 18 



596 



INDEX 



Apple, marketing, 67 
marketing costs, 50 
modified atmosphere storage, 146 
orchard, selecting land for, 169 
packages, marking, 23 
packing, 16 

in barrels, 33, 142 

in baskets, 43 

in community packing house, 
31 

in Eastern box, 41 

in grower's packing house, 30 

in orchard, 30 

in Western box, 34 . 
picking, 2 

for storage, 64 

procedures, 15 

proper time for, 11 

the fruit, 15 
precooling, 97 

production, and prices in U. S. 
1919-38, 98 

by states, 5 

in U. S., 4 
pruning, 232 

quantities handled by retail out- 
lets in N. Y. City 1937-38, 
82 

quantities purchased by con- 
sumers in N. Y. City 1937- 
38, 86 

recent declines in wholesale 
prices in N. Y. City, 103 
refrigerator cars for, 97 
regions and varieties, 196 
sales as related to other retail 
sales in N. Y. City 1937- 
38, 84 

sales by public storage, 72 
seHing, 68 

at wayside stands, 68 

collectively, 73 



Apple, shipping-point inspection, 
95 

size of crop as influencing pack- 
age to use, 19 
sizers, 23 

sizing machines, 23 

soil culture for, 410 

sources of supply for N. Y. Cit\' 

1937-38, 88 
spoilage and marketing costs in 

N. Y. City 1937-38, 87 
spray residues, 44 
spray schedule, 292 
spurs, 209 

storage, form of, 54 

temperature for, 65 
storage scald, 66 
storing, 51 
thinning, 448 

trees, bearing and non-bearing in 

U. S., 164 
truck shipments to N. Y. City, 

75 

U. S. standard grades, 133 
unloads in N. Y. City 1932-39, 75 
varieties, good pollenizers, 397 
length of season to mature, 176 
of Eastern and Western on 

N. Y. market 1937-38, 91 
poor pollenizers, 397 
self-fruitful, 396 
self-unfruitful, 395 
ventilator cars for, 97 
where crop is marketed as in- 
fluencing package to use, 
19 

wholesale prices by varieties 

N. Y. City, 100 
yields, 3 

Apples and applesauce, canned, 
production by states 1921- 
38, 106 



INDEX 



597 



Application of spray materials, 

291, 340 
Applying dust materials, 348 
Applying fertilizers, 436 
Apricot, dried, production 1923-37, 

105 

fertilizers, 438 
fruiting habits, 212 
pruning, 261 

regions and varieties, 204 

soil culture, 430 
Apricot and peach, self-fruitful va- 
rieties, 401 
Arsenate, calcium, 275 

lead, 274 

zinc, 276 
Association, collective selling, 73 
Auction selling, 79 

B 

Barium tetrasulfide, 284 

Bark grafting, 371 

Barrel, apple, specifications of, 19 

for apple packing, 18 

packing apples in, 142 

U. S. Standard, 141 
Baskets, climax, U. S. Standard, 
142 

for apple packing, 18 

packing in, 43 

picking, apple, 7 

splint, U. S. Standard, 142 
Bearing apple trees in U. S., 164 
Bees, distance pollen carried, 407 

for cross-pollination, 404 

number colonies required for 
cross-pollination, 406 
Berry boxes, U. S. Standard, 142 
Black leaf 40, 277 
Black raspberry, 529 

dried fruit, 557 



Black raspberry, fertilizers, 542 

harvesting and marketing, 553 

insects and diseases, 551 

life of plantation, 557 

planting, 539 

planting plans, 538 

preparing soil, 537 

propagating, 386 

pruning and training, 545 

securing plants, 533 

soil culture, 540 

varieties, 560 
selecting, 535 

yields, 558 
Blackberry, 531 

determining size of enterprise, 
532 

fertilizers, 542 

harvesting and marketing, 556 

insects and diseases, 551 

life of plantation, 557 

planting, 539 

planting plans, 538 

preparing soil, 537 

pruning and training, 547 

securing plants, 534 

soil culture, 540 

soils for, 532 

time of planting, 533 

varieties, 560 
selecting, 535 

yields, 558 
Blossoming branches, use of, for 

cross-pollination, 409 
Blossoms, injury from cold, 160 

number in fruit buds, 209 
Blueberry, controlling birds, 577 

establishing plantation, 573 

fertilizers, 575 

growing, 571 

harvesting and marketing, 579 
insects and diseases, 577 



598 



INDEX 



Blueberrj^, origin of cultivated, 571 

planting, 574 

propagating, 383 

pruning, 575 

soil for, 573 

varieties, 574 

yields, 580 
Borax for soil treatment, 440 
Bordeaux mixture, 282 

nozzle, 322 

preparation, 287 
Borer, peach tree, 355, 358 
Boron, deficiency in soils, 440 
Boxes, berry, U. S. Standard, 142 

for apple packing, 18 
Boj^senberrj^, 561 
Brambles, growing, 529 
Bridge grafted trees, treatment of, 
383 

Bridge grafting, 380 
Broker, 79 
Brush pusher, 263 
Budding, shield, 377 
Buds, forming of fruit, 207 
injury from cold, 160 
location of leaf and fruit, 208 
Bush fruits, growing, 529 
Bushel basket, types of, for apple 
packing, 20 
U. S. Standard, 142 
By-products, apple, 105 
various, 108 

C 

Calcium arsenate, 275 

Calcium caseinate, 285 

Canned apples and applesauce, pro- 
duction by states 1921-38, 
106 

Canned fruits, production 1921-38, 
107 



Canning, and drying, peach, 118 
pear, 121 
cherry, 131 
Carbohydrate and nitrogen rela- 
tionships, 221 
Carbohydrates, as affected by re- 
moval of leaves, 220 
for fruit bud formation, 219 
Caring for spray machinery and 

equipment, 352 
Carloads, apples. New York City 

1932-39, 75 
Cars, loading peaches, 117 
loading properlj^ apple, 95 
refrigerator, for apples, 97 
ventilator, for apples, 97 
Cartons for apple packing, 21 
Casein, 285 

Caseinate, calcium, 285 

Cedar rust, 355 

Cellar storage, 60 

Center-leader tree, 236 

Certified nursery stock, brambles, 

552 
trees, 187 
Chain stores as sellers of apples, 

93 

Chautauqua system, grape train- 
ing, 515 
Cherry, canning, 131 

cold storage for, 129 

fertilizers, 438 

formation of fruit buds, 217 
frozen, 129 
fruiting habits, 213 
packing, 132 
picking, 131 

production by states, 127 
pruning, 256 

regions and varieties, 203 
self-fruitful varieties. 400 
self-unfruitful varieties, 400 



INDEX 



599 



Cherry, selling, 129 
soil culture, 430 
spray program, 295 
yields, 129 
Cider and vinegar, production and 

value 1933 and 1938, 106 
Cions, selecting for cleft grafting, 
365 

treatment of, after cleft grafting, 
368 

Clean culture, 416 

and cover crops, 418 
Cleft grafting, 362 

equipment for, 364 

of grape vines, 371 

operations in, 365 

treatment of cions after, 368 
Climax baskets, U. S. Standard, 
142 

Cold injury to blossoms, buds, 
roots, and wood, 157 
in relation to maturity of tissues, 
160 

Cold storage, 54 

cherry, 129 

holdings, apple, 52 
Cold weather injury, 157 
Collective selling, 73 
Colloidal sulfur, 284 
Color as indication of proper time 

for picking apple, 11 
Commercial crop, apple, 5 
Commercial packs, judging, 463 
Common storage, 54 

above ground, 60 

cellar, 60 

construction of, 60 
determining type to build, 58 
factors for operation, 57 
operating, 63 
plans, 59, 61 
ventilating, 63 



Community packing house, apple, 
31 

Community Studies, apple, har- 
vesting, storing, and mar- 
keting, 150 
brambles, 561 

controlling insects and diseases, 
359 

current and gooseberry, 571 
establishing orchard, 206 
grapes, 528 

growth of tree and forming of 

fruit buds, 223 
injury from cold, 161 
managing orchard soils and 

fertilizing the trees, 440 
pollination and fruit setting, 409 
propagating fruit plants, 389 
pruning, 267 
strawberry, 493 
thinning fruit, 452 
Concord, 499 

Consumers' demand for apples in 

N. Y. City, 103 
Contact insecticides, 276 
Containers, U. S. Standard, 141 
Control measures other than spray- 
ing and dusting, 355 
Controlling insects and diseases, 
269 

Controlling mice, 153 

Cooperative agencies for peacli 
marketing, 119 

Cooperative marketing associa- 
tions, grape, 525 

Cooperative packing house for 
apples, 31 

Cooperative selling, 73 

Copper sulfate dust, 285 

Costs, apple harvesting, 50 
apple marketing, 50 
of applying fertilizers, 436 



600 



INDEX 



Costs, of shipping point inspection, 
95 

of soil management systems, 
425 

of spraying program, 353 

pruning, 264 

storage construction, 56 

thinning, 450 
CoupHngs, hose, 332 
Cover crops, amounts to use, 425 

and clean culture, 418 

for grapes, 505 

kind to use, 420, 423 

legume, 420 

natural, 422 

non-legume, 420 

time of seeding, 424 
Cranberry barrel, 141 
Crates, apple, 9 
Cross-pollination, 393 

agencies, 405 

as affecting selection of varieties 

for planting, 178 
bees for, 404 
need of, 395 

raspberry, blackberry, and dew- 
berry, 535 

treatment of established orchards 
for, 407 
Culture, clean, 416 

sod, 412 

strip, 417 

systems of soil, 411 
tillage, 412 
Currants, and gooseberries, grow- 
ing, 562 
establishing plantation, 563 
harvesting and marketing, 569 
inse,cts and diseases, 569 
propagating, 383 
piTining and training, 567 
soil culture, 568 



Currants, varieties, 565 

yields, 570 
Cut-off spray, 329 
Cuttings, propagating by, 383 
C3dinders, pump, 314 

D 

Demand by consumers for apples 

in N. Y. City, 103 
Dewberry, 531 
fertilizers, 542 

harvesting and marketing, 556 
insects and diseases, 551 
life of plantation, 557 
planting, 539 
planting plans, 538 
preparing soil, 537 
pruning and training, 549 
securing plants, 535 
soil culture, 540 
soils for, 532 
time of planting, 5"83 
varieties, 560 

selecting, 535 
jaelds, 558 
Disc nozzle, 322 

Disease control, materials for, 282 
Diseases, and insects, controlling^ 
269 

grapes, controlling, 520 
information concerning, 273 
strawberries, controlling, 483 
nature of, 272 
Distances for planting in orchard, 
178 

D. N. oil, 279 
Dormant pruning, 225 
Drainage, soil, as factor in select- 
ing orchard land, 171 
providing, 152 



INDEX 



601 



Dried fruit, black raspberry, 557 

production in U. S. 1923-37, 105 
Dry lime-sulfur, 277 
Dry mix, 284 

Drying and canning, peach, 118 

pear, 121 
Dust, copper sulfate, 285 

materials, applying, 348 

quantities to use, 352 

tobacco, 278 
Duster, 336 

mechanical features, 336 
Dusting and spraying, comparative 

merits, 309 
Dwarf trees, 186 

Dynamite, value in planting trees, 
194 

E 

Eastern apple box, grades of fruit 
for, 26 
specifications of, 20 

Eastern apples, on N. Y. market 
1937-38, 89, 91 
sources of supply, N. Y. City 
1937-38, 88 

Eastern box, packing in, 41 

Eastern and Western apples, com- 
parative sales of, N. Y. 
City 1937-38, 85 

Elements, absorbed from soil, 218 
often lacking in soil, 218 

Elevation, importance for orchard, 
170 

Elgetol, 280 
Emulsification, 278 
Emulsifier, 278 

Emulsion, dilution table for tar- 
distillate, 290 
oil, 279 
Engine, sprayer, 318 



Enterprises, supplemental to or- 
chard, 168 
Equipment, apple harvest, 5 

mechanical features of spray, 312 
Establishing orchard, 162 
Exhibit, commercial packages for, 
459 
fruit, 454 

labels for fruit, 458 

plates for fruit, 456 

polishing fruit for, 459 

selecting fruit for, 454 

setting up, 455 
Export market, apple, 108 

pear, 123 
Export requirements, apple, 109 
Exports of apples, 109, 110 
Exposure, importance for orchard,, 
170 

F 

Fall planting af orchards, 174 
Fall plowing, 419 

Family income and apple pur- 
chases in N. Y. City 1937- 
38, 83 

Family incomes in N. Y. City 1938, 
93 

Farm enterprises supplemental to 

orchard, 168 
Fertilization of blossoms, method 

of, 390, 393 
Fertilizers, apple, 431 

amounts and time of applica- 
tion, 434 
applying, 436 
apricot, 438 
blueberry, 575 
brambles, 542 
cherry, 438 
costs of applying, 436 



602 



INDEX 



fertilizers, grape, 507 

kinds for apple, 432 

need for apple, 432 

peach, 436 

pear, 438 

plum, 438 

quince, 438 

strawberries, 480 

use in planting trees, 195 
Fertilizing trees, 410 
Field, preparing for planting, 190 

staking for planting, 190 
Figs, dried, production 1923-37, 
105 

Fillers, advisability of use in or- 
chard, 179 
Fire blight, 356 
Flotation sulfur, 283 
Flour, 285 

Formation of fruit buds, 214 
Forms of storage, apple, 54 
Freight rates on apples from vari- 
ous sections 1940, 99 
Trost, avoidance of, in selecting 

orchard lands, 170 
Trozen fruit, 148 
cherries, 129 
strawberries. 148 
Truit and vegetable stands, apple 
sales in N. Y. City 1937- 
38, 84 
Fruit auctions, 79 
Fruit bud formation, 214 
carbohydrates for, 219 
Fruit buds, forming of, 207 
injury from cold, 160 
location of, 208 
Fruit exhibits and judging, 454 
Fruit grower. Shall I be a, 581 
Fruit growing, selecting region for, 
162 

Fruit judging, 459 



Fruit plants, propagating, 361 
Fruit setting and pollination, 399 
Fruit spurs, location of, 208 
Fruit thinning, 443 
Fruit trees, stocks for, 205 
Fruiting habits of various fruits, 
210 

Fruits, canned, production 1921-38, 
107 

dried, production 1923-37, 105 - 
self-fruitful, 394 
self-unfruitful, 394 
Functions performed in marketing, 
77 

G 

Gas storage, 67, 146 
Georgia carrier for peaches, 115 
Girdled trees, treatment of, 156 
Gooseberries, establishing planta- 
tion, 563 

harvesting and marketing, 569 

insects and diseases, 569 

propagating, 383, 386 

pruning and training, 567 

soil culture, 568 

varieties, 565 

yields, 570 
Gooseberries and currants, grow- 
ing, 563 

Grade and age of trees for plant- 
ing, 183 
Grades, apple, 21 

as affected by soil types, 172 

causes of poor, 26 

of Eastern and Western on 
N. Y. market 1937-38, 89 

U. S. Standard, 133 

Western box, 24 
Grades and sizes, apples, 21 
Grading apples, 33 



INDEX 



603 



Grading laws, apple, 21 

peach, 117 
Grading records of apples in 

Michigan orchards, 26 
Grafting, bark or inlay, 371 

bridge, 380 

cleft, 362 

cross shoots, 388 

preparations, 387 

whip, 373 
Grape juice factories, 523 
Grape vines, cleft grafting, 371 
Grapes, bench grafting, 377 

cooperative marketing associa- 
tions, 525 

cover crop, 505 

determining size of enterprise, 
497 

fertilizers for, 507 
growing, 495 
harvesting, 520 
insects and diseases, 520 
intercrops for, 505 
marketing, 522 
Muscadine, growing, 527 
packages for, 522 
packing, 522 
picking, 520 
planting, 501 

time of, 500 
planting distances, 500 
production, 496 
propagation, 383 
protecting vines in winter, 527 
pruning, 511 

time of, 519 
pruning shears for, 519 
pruning tests, results of, 518 
renewing canes, 519 
securing plants, 500 
selecting location for, 498 
soil for, 498 



Grapes, soil management, 503 
implements for, 504 

storage, 525 

training, 509 

trellis, establishing, 509 

varieties, 499 
Growers' organization, 74 
Growing bush fruits, 529 

grapes, 495 

small fruits, 467 

strawberries, 468 
Growth, as affected by carbohy- 
drates, nitrogen, and 
water, 220 

in thickness, 208 

kinds of tree, 207 

length, 208 

of tree, 207 
Growth conditions, diagnosing, 439 

treatment for varying, 439 
Gun, spray, 325 



H 

Hampers and baskets, U. S. Stand- 
ard, 142 

Hand sprayer, 334 

Hardware cloth for tree protection, 
155 

Harvest, strawberry, treatment 

after, 489 
Harvesting and marketing, blue- 
berry, 579 

brambles, 553 

costs, apple, 50 

currant and gooseberry, 569 

strawberries, 485 
Harvesting equipment, apple, 5 
Harvesting grapes, 520 
Heads desirable for apple tree, 234 
Hedgerow, strawberries, 474 



604 



INDEX 



Hedgerow system, planting, bram- 
bles, 538 

Heeling in trees on arrival from 

nursery, 189 
Hellebore, 276 

Hexagonal system of orchard 
planting, 181 

High renewal system, grape train- 
ing, 515 

Hill system, planting, brambles, 
538 

strawberries, 474 
Hormone sprays, use in apple pick- 
ing, 13 
Hose couplings, 332 
Hose spray, 329 
Humidity, common storage, 57 

I 

Identification of fruit varieties, 465 
Implements for soil management, 
426 

Income as related to consumption 
of apples in New York 
City 1937-38, 83 
Incomes of families in New York 

City 1938, 93 
Injury from cold weather, 157 
Inlay grafting, 371 
Insecticides, contact, 276 
Insects, feeding habits, 271 

materials for controlling, 273 
Insects and diseases, blueberry, 577 

brambles, 551 

controlling, 269 

currant and gooseberry, 569 

grapes, controlling, 520 

information concerning, 273 

strawberries, controlling, 483 
Inspection, shipping point, 95 



Institute, New York and New Eng- 
land Apple, 74 
Intercrops, for grapes, 505 

in orchard, 416 
Intersterile varieties, 395 
Irrigation, brambles, 541 

strawberries, 482 

J 

Jobber, 79 

Judging collections of fruit, score 

card for, 464 
Judging commercial pack, 463 
Judging fruit, 459 

factors in, 460 

score card for, 460 
June buds, 184 

K 

Keuka system, grape training, 515 
Knifiin system, grape training, 511 
Knives, pruning, 230 

L 

Labor, apple harvest, 10 

Labor supply as affecting selection 
of spray machinery, 308 

Ladder, raising for picking, 15 

Ladders, apple harvest, 6 

Layerage, mound, 386 

Layers, propagating by, 386 

Lead arsenate, 274 

Leaf and fruit buds, injury from 
cold, 160 

Leaf buds, location of, 208 

Leaves, removal as affecting car- 
bohydrate supply, 220 



INDEX 



605 



Legumes for cover crops, 420 
Length growth, 208 
Lignin pitch, 286 
Lime sulfur, 276, 282 

dry, 277 

preparation, 286 

self-boiled, 284 
Loading cars, 95 

peach, 117 
Loganberry, 529 

M 

Machinery, spray, and size of fruit 
enterprise, 306 
selection of, 304 

Managing orchard soils and fer- 
tilizing trees, 410 

Manure, use of, in planting trees, 
195 

Map of orchard after planting, 196 
Margins of city agencies in selling 
fruit, 85 

Market, as affecting size of orchard 
enterprise, 165 
as determining varieties for 

planting, 174 
preferences and prices, apple, 98 
preferences and tendencies as in- 
fluencing packages for 
apples, 18 
tendencies as determining selec- 
tion of varieties for plant- 
ing, 176 
Marketing agencies, 79 

retail, 81 
Marketing apples, 67 
costs, 50 
steps in, 67 
Marketing cherries, 129 
Marketing functions, 77 
Marketing grapes, 522 



Marketing peach, 119 
Marketing services, 77 
Marketing strawberries, 485 
Markets, export, apple, 108 
pears, 123 
wayside, 68 
Marking apple packages, 23 
Materials for controlling insects 

and diseases, selecting, 273 
for spray program, 291 
Matted row, strawberries, 473 
Maturity of tissues as protection 

from cold, 160 
Mcintosh, picking, 12 
Mechanical features of sprayers^ 

312 

Mice, controlling, 153 

protecting trees from, 154 
Miscible oil, 279 

Modified atmosphere storage, 67 
146 

Modified leader tree, 235 
Mosaics, 531, 551 

Moss, peat, value in planting trees, 
194 

Motor truck shipments, growth of, 
76 

of apples to N. Y. City, 75 
Mound layerage, 386 
Mouse control. 153 
Mulch, additional, 414 

sod, 413 
Muscadine grapes, gcowing, 527 



N 

National Apple Institute, 74 
New England and New York Apple 

Institute, 74 
New Jersey dry mix, 284 
Nicotine sulfate, 277 



606 



INDEX 



Nitrogen, and carbohydrate rela- 
tionships, 221 
as related to tree growth and 

fruit bud formation, 220 
for orchard soils, 433 
Non-bearing apple trees in U. S,, 
164 

Non-legumes for cover crops, 420 
Notching and ringing, effects of, 
219 

Nozzles, spray, 322 
Nursery, shield budding in> 377, 
379 

whip grafting in, 375 
Nursery trees, heeling in on arrival, 
189 

Nutrient solutions, strawberries, 
479 

Nutrition, tree, 217 
O 

Oil emulsion, 279 

preparation, 289 
Oil sprays, 278 

proportions for use, 281 
Open-head tree, 235 
Operating common storage, 63 
Orchard, cross-pollination and se- 
lection of varieties, 178 

determining size of enterprise, 
165 

elevation as factor in selecting 

land for, 170 
elevation and slope as factors in 

selecting land for, 170 
establishing, 162 
intercrops, 416 

location as affected by tempera- 
ture, rainfall, and bodies 
of water, 163 

map of, after planting, 196 



Orchard, practices as influenced by 
nitrogen-carbohydrate re- 
lationships, 222 

removing trees from, 267 

season of planting, 173 

selecting land for, 169 

selecting region for, 162 

size as affected by supplemental 
farm enterprises, 168 

size as determined by market, 
16f 

soil as factor in selecting land 
for, 171 

systems of soil culture for, 411 
treatment for cross-pollination, 
407 

■use of fillers in planting, 179 
varieties for planting, 174, 176 

Oriental fruit moth, 356 

Own rooted trees, 376 

P 

Packages, for apples, 18 

determining type to use, 17 
marking, 23 
specifications of, 19 
for peaches, 115 
for pears, 121 
Packing, apple, 16 

determining grades and sizes 

to be made, 21 
determining where to do, 30 
in barrels, 33, 142 
cherry, 132 
grapes, 522 

house, apple, operated coopera- 
tively, 31 
owned by grower, 30 
requirements, 32 
in baskets, 43 



INDEX 



607 



Packing, in Eastern box, 41 

in Western box, 34 

laws, 21 

peach, 116 

pear, 121 

plums, 125 
Packing and storage, quince, 132 
Pails, picking, apple, 7 
Paradichlorobenzene, 355 
Peach, canning and drying, 118 

dried, production 1923-37, 105 

fertilizers, 436 

fruiting habits, 212 

grading laws, 117 

loading cars, 117 

marketing, 119 

packages for, 115 

packing, 116 
bushel basket, 116 
Georgia carrier, 116 
houses for, 116 

picking, 112 

picking equipment, 114 

precooling, 118 

production by states. 111 

pruning, 247 

quantities picked in day, 113 
regions and varieties, 201 
season of shipment, 110 
soil culture, 430 
spray schedule, 305 
storing, 118 
thinning, 451 

tree borer, control, 355, 358 

trees, topworking, 379 

yields, 114 
Peach and apricot, self-fruitful va- 
rieties, 401 
Pear, canning and drying, 121 

dried, production 1923-37, 105 

export markets, 123 

fertilizers, 438 



Pear, formation of fruit buds, 217 
fruiting habits, 210 
modified atmosphere storage, 146 
packages and packing, 121 
picking, 120 

production by states, 122 
pruning, 244 

regions and varieties, 202 
self-fruitful varieties, 398 
self-unfruitful varieties, 398 
shipment of, 123 
soil culture, 431 
spray program, 294 
storage and refrigeration, 122 
yields, 123 
Peat moss, use in planting trees, 
194 

Pedigree trees, 186 

Permanent trees, planting distances 

for, 179 
Petroleum oil, 279 
Physiology and nutrition, tree, 217 
Picking bucket, apple, 8 

cherry, 131 

dates of varieties, 178 

determining proper time, apple, 
11 

equipment, peach, 114 
grapes, 520 
peach, 112 
pear, 120 
plum, 124 

procedures, apple, 15 

quince, 132 

rate of, apple, 10 

receptacles, apple, 7 

strawberries, 486 

the fruit, apple, 15 

use of hormone sprays, 13 
Pitch, lignin, 286 
Plans, common storage, 59, 61 

planting, for orchards- 178 



608 



INDEX 



Planting, advisability of use of 
fillers in, 179 
blueberrj^ 574 
brambles, 539 

determining location of trees for, 
190 

distances, and plans, 178 
as affected by size of mature 

trees, 179 
grape, 500 
grapes, 501 

time of, 500 
importance of cross-pollination 
in selecting varieties for, 
178 

picking dates of varieties as af- 
fecting lists for, 178 

plans, and distances, 178 
brambles, 537 

-preparing field for, 190 

preparing soil for, 190 

protection of trees while, 195 

season of, 173 

sources of trees for, 188 

staking field for, 190 

strawberries, 475 

systems, strawberries, 473 

time of, brambles, 533 

' strawberries, 472 

treatment of trees after, 196 

trees, 194, 195 
use of manure in, 195 

value of dynamite in, 194 

value of peat moss in, 194 

varieties for, 174, 176 
Plants, grape, securing, 500 
Plowing, fall, 419 

spring, 419 
Plum fertilizers, 438 

formation of fruit buds, 217 

fruiting habits, 213 

packing, 125 



Plum fertilizers, picking, 124 
pruning, 259 

regions and varieties, 204 
soil culture, 430 
storing, 125 
thinning, 452 

varieties, self-unfruitful, 398 
Plums and prunes, production by 
states, 126 
yields, 127 
Poisons, stomach, 274 
Polishing fruit for exhibition, 459 
Pollen, effect of, on fruit charac- 
ters, 403 
Pollenizers, apple, 403 

arrangement in orchard, 404 
qualifications of good, 403 
Pollination, and fruit setting, 390 
cross, 393 
as affecting selection of va- 
rieties, 178 
need of, 395 
method of, 390 
self, 393 

strawberries, 471 
Power sprayer, 312 
Precooling apples, 97 
Precooling peaches, 118 
Preparations, grafting, 387 
Preparing for winter, 152 
Pressure chamber, 315 
Prices, and production of apples 
in U. S. 1919-38, 98 
of apples in N. Y. City, 101, 103 
retail, 94 
wholesale, 100 
Production, and prices of apples in 
U. S. 1919-38, 98 
and value of cider and vinegar 

1933 and 1938, 106 
apple, by states, 5 
in U. S., 4 



INDEX 



609 



Production, canned apples and 
applesauce by states 1921- 
38, 106 

canned fruits 1921-38, 107 

cherry, by states, 127 

commercial, strawberries, 469 

dried fruits in U. S. 1923-37, 105 

grapes, 496 

peach, by states, 111 

pear, by states, 122 

plums and prunes, by states, 126 
Programs, spray, 291 
Propagating, by cuttings, 383 

by layers, 386 
Propagating fruit plants, 361 
Providing soil drainage, 152 
Prunes, 125 

and plums, production by states, 
126 

dried, production 1923-37, 105 
Pruning, 225 

and training, brambles, 543 

currants and gooseberries, 567 
apple, 232 
apricot, 261 
blueberry, 575 
cherry, 256 
costs, 264 
extent of, 226 
grapes, 511 

time of, 519 
old bearing trees, 229 
peach, 247 
pear, 244 
plum, 259 
quince, 263 
rejuvenation, 241 
roots of nursery trees, 189 
shears, grapes, 519 
tests, grapes, 518 
time of, 225 
tools, 230 



Pruning, wounds, protecting, 243 
young Gearing trees, 228 
3^oung non-bearing trees, 226 

Pump, sprayer, 312 

Pump cylinders, 314 

Pump specifications, 314 

Purchasing trees for planting, 182 

Purple raspberry, see Raspberry, 
purple 

Pyrethrum, 280 

Q 

Quality of apples as influencing 

package, 17 
Quantity of apples purchased by 
consumers in N. Y. City 
1937-38, 86 
Quince, fertilizers, 438 
formation of fruit buds, 217 
packing and storage, 132 
picking, 132 
propagating, 386 
pruning, 263 

regions and varieties, 204 
self-fruitful varieties, 401 
soil culture, 431 
yields, 133 
Quincunx system of orchard plant- 
ing, 181 

R 

Rabbits, protecting trees from, 154 
Rainfall as factor in selecting 

region for orchard, 163 
Raisins, dried, production 1923- 

37, 105 
Raspberry, black, 529 
determining size of enterprise, 

532 

fertilizers, 542 



610 



INDEX 



Raspberry, harvesting and market- 
ing, 553 
insects and diseases, 551 
life of plantation, 557 
planting, 539 
planting plans, 538 
preparing soil, 537 
pruning and training, 543 
purple, 531 
varieties, 560 

selecting, 535 
yields, 558 
red, 529 

varieties, 559 

selecting, 535 
j'ields, 558 
securing plants, 533 
soil culture, 540 
soils for, 532 
time of planting, 533 
winter protection, 558 
Rectangular system of orchard 

planting, 181 
Red raspberry, see Raspberry, red 
Refrigeration and storage, pear, 
122 

Refrigerator cars for apples, 97 
Region, selecting, for fruit, 162 
Regions and varieties, apple, 196 

apricot, 204 

cherry, 203 

peach, 201 

pear, 202 

plum, 204 

quince, 204 
Rejuvenation pruning, 241 
Removing trees from orchard, 267 
Replacing trees, 152 
Residues, removing spray, 44 
Retail margins in selling apples 
in N. Y. City 1937-38, 86 
Retail marketing agencies, 81 



Retail outlets, quantities of apples 
handled in N. Y. City, 
1937-38, 82 

Ringing and notching, effects of, 
219 

Roadside stands, 68 

Rod, spray, 327 

Roots, injury from cold, 160 

pruning, on arrival from nursery, 
189 

Rotenone, 280 



S 

Sales, apple, as related to other 
retail sales in N. Y. City 
1937-38, 84 
on stands in N. Y. City 1937- 
38, 84 
cooperative, 73 

through public cold storage, 72 
Saws, pruning, 230 
Scald, storage, apple, 66 
Score card, for collections of fruits, 
464 

for judging fruit, 460 

use of, in judging, 464 
Season of maturity for apples, 176 
Self-boiled lime sulfur, 284 
Self-compatible varieties, 394 
Self-fertile varieties, 394 
Self-pollination, 393 
Self-sterile varieties, 395 
Self-unfruitful fruits, 394 
Selling, by auction, 79 

methods of, apple, 68 
Services, marketing, 79 
Setting trees, 195 
Shall I be a fruit grower, 581 
Shears, pruning, 230 
I Shield budding, 377 



INDEX 



611 



Shipments, peach, from producing 
sections, 110 
pear, 123 
Shipping-point inspection, 95 
Shipping strawberries, 487 
Size of orchard enterprise, 165 
Sizing machines, apple, 23 
Skim milk, 285 

Slope, importance for orchard, 170 

Small fruits, growing, 467 

Soaps, 280 

Sod culture, 412 

Sod mulch, 413 

Soil, elements absorbed from, 218 
elements often lacking in, 218 
for grapes, 498 

importance of, in selecting or- 
chard lands, 171 
preparing, for brambles, 537 
for planting, 190 
Soil culture, apricot, 430 
brambles, 540 
cherry, 430 

currant and gooseberry, 568 

grapes, 503 

implements for, 426 

peach, 430 

pear, 431 

plum, 430 

quince, 431 

strawberries, 479 

systems of, 412, 415 
Soil drainage, providing, 152 
Soil management, costs of, 425 

implements for, 426 

strawberries, 479 
Soils, and location, strawberries, 
468 

as affecting grades of apples pro- 
duced, 172 
blackberry and dewberry, 532 
raspberry, 532 



Sources of trees for planting, 
188 

Spoilage as factor in apple market- 
ing costs in N. Y. City 
1937-38, 87 
''Spot" picking, apple, 12 
Spray, cut-off, 329 
gun, 325 

hormone, for apple picking, 13 
hose, 329 

machinery and equipment, 304 

caring for, 352 

selecting, 339 
materials, applying, 340, 342 

time of, 291 
nozzles, 322 
plant, stationary, 337 
programs, 291 

cherry, 295 

pear, 294 
residues, removing, 44 
rod, 327 

schedule, apple, 292, 297 
non-washing, 301 
peach, 305 
shape of, from nozzles, 324 
types, 328 
Sprayer, agitator, 321 
engine, 318 
hand, 334 
power, 312 
pump, 312 
tank, 320 
traction, 333 

transfer of material from tank 

to pump, 321 
truck, 322 
Sprayers, mechanical features, 312 
Spraying, accessories, 330, 342 
and dusting, comparative merits, 
309 

planning facilities for, 341 



612 



INDEX 



Spraying, program, costs, 353 

with the wind, 344 
Spreading materials for sprays, 285 
Spring planting of orchards, 173 
Spring plowing, 419 
Spurs, fruit, location of, 208 
Square system of orchard plant- 
ing, 181 
Staking field for planting, 190 
Stationary spray plant, 337 

advantages, 338 
Sticking materials for sprays, 285 
Stocks for fruit trees, 205 
Stomach poisons, 274 
Storage, cellar, 60 
charges for apple, 56 
cold, 54 
common, 54 
above ground, 60 
construction of, 60 
determining type to build, 58 
operating, 63 
plans of, 59, 61 
ventilating, 63 
cost of constructing, 56 
determining whether to buy or 

build, 55 
factors for operating common, 57 
forms of, for apple, 54 
gas, 67 
grapes, 525 
holdings of apples, 52 
modified atmosphere, 67, 146 
pear, 122 

picking apples for, 64 
scald, apple, 66 
temperature, for apple, 65 

for peaches, 118 
Storing, apple, 51 

determining advisability of, 51 
peach, 118 
plum, 125 



Strawberries, commercial produc- 
tion, 469 
containers, 485 
fertilizers, 480 
frozen fruit, 148 
growing, 468 

harvesting and marketing, 485 

insects and diseases, 483 

irrigation, 482 

location and soils, 468 

nutrient solutions in planting, 
479 

picking, 486 

planting, 475 

planting systems, 473 

planting tools, 477 

pollination, 471 

preparing field, 470 

selecting varieties, 470 

shipping, 488 

soil management, 479 

time of planting, 472 

treatment after harvest, 489 

varieties, commercial, 492 
everbearing, 491 

winter protection, 484 

yields, 488 
Strip culture, 417 
Sulfate, nicotine, 277 
Sulfur, 283 

colloidal, 284 

wettable, 283 
Summer pruning, 225 
Supplemental farm enterprises, 168 
Systems of training grapes, 511 



T 

Tank, sprayer, 320 
Tar-distillate emulsions, dilution 
table, 290 



INDEX 



613 



Tar lubricating oil, 279 
Tar oil, 279 

Temperature, common storage, 57 
in relation to orchard location, 
163 

storage, for apple, 65 

Thickness, growth in, 208 

Thinning, apples, 448 
as affecting annual bearing, 447 
as affecting harvesting costs, 
447 

as affecting yield, 447 
conditions making advisable, 443 
costs, 450 
fruit, 443 
peaches, 450 
plums, 452 
results from, 445 
time of, 448 
Tillage, 412 

Tobacco preparations, 277 
Tools, pruning, 230 
Topworking, by budding, 377 

trees, 363 
Tower, 322 

sprayer, 322 
Traction sprayer, 333 
Training grapes, 509 

systems of, 511 
Trees, age and grade for planting, 
183 

apple, bearing and non-bearing 

in U. S. 164 
caring for, on arrival from 

nursery, 188 
certified, 187 

determining location of for 

planting, 190 
dwarf, 186 

girdled, treatment of, 156 
growth, 207 
kinds of, 207 



Trees, how they live and function, 
218 

number per acre in various 

planting plans, 182 
on own roots, 376 
pedigree, 186 

physiology and nutrition, 217 

planting, 194, 195 

protection from mice and rab- 
bits, 154 

protection while planting, 195 

pruning, old bearing, 229 

roots of, on arrival from 

nursery, 189 
young bearing, 228 
young non-bearing, 226 

purchasing for planting, 182 

removing from orchard, 267 

replacing, 152 

size of mature, as affecting plant- 
ing distances, 179 
sources for planting, 188 
stocks for fruit, 205 
topworking, 363 
treatment after planting, 196 
use of fertilizer in planting, 195 
use of manure in planting, 195 
value of dynamite in planting, 
194 

Triangular system of orchard 

planting, 181 
Truck shipments of apples to New 

York City, 75 
Truck, sprayer, 322 



U 

U. S. Grades, apple, 21 
U. S. Standard containers, 141 
Unloads, apples. New York City 
1932-39, 75 



614 



INDEX 



V 

Varieties, blackberry, 560 

selecting, 535 
black raspberry, 560 
blueberry, 574 

characters and adaptations as 
affecting selections for 
planting, 176 
commercial, strawberry, 492 
cross-pollination as factor in 
selections for planting, 178 
currants and gooseberries, 565 
dewberry, 560 

selecting, 535 
everbearing strawberry, 491 
for orchard planting, 174 
for planting, as affected by mar- 
ket tendencies, 176 
as determined by markets, 174 
fruit, how to identify, 465 
gooseberries and currants, 565 
grapes, selecting, 499 
of apples, as influencing package, 
17 

length of season required to 
mature, 176 
of Eastern and Western apples 
on N. Y. market 1937-38, 
91 

picking dates of, 178 
purple raspberry, 560 
raspberry, selecting, 535 
red raspberry, 559 
strawberry, selecting, 470 
Varieties and regions, apple, 196 
apricot, 204 

cherry, 203 » 
peach, 201 
pear, 202 
plum, 204 
quince, 204 



Ventilating common storage, 57, 63 
Ventilator cars for apples, 97 
Vinegar and cider, production and 

value 1933 and 1938, 106 
Vines, grape, setting, 501 
Virus diseases, 531, 551 
Vitw, 495 

W 

Water, as related to tree growth, 
220 

in relation to orchard location, 
164 

Water supply as affecting selection 

of spray machinery, 308 
Wax, alcohohc, 388 
brush, 387 
soft, 387 
Wayside stands, 68 

factors for success, 68 
Western and Eastern apples, com- 
parative sales of N. Y. 
City 1937-38, 85 
Western apple box, specifications, 
20 

Western apples, grades of, 24 
on N. Y. market 1937-38, 90 
sources of supply N. Y. City 

1937-38, 88 
varieties on N. Y. market 1937- 

38, 92 

Western boxes, packing in, 34 
Wettable sulfur, 283 
Whip grafting, 373 
White oils, 280 

Wholesale prices of apples by va- 
rieties N. Y. City for 56 
years, 100 
Winter, preparing for, 152 
protection, brambles, 558 
grape vines, 527 
strawberries, 484 



INDEX 



615 



Wood tissues, injury from cold, 
157 

Wounds, protecting, pruning, 243 
Y 

Yield and size of apple trees as 

affected by pruning, 227 
Yields, blueberry, 580 

brambles, 558 

cherry, 129 



Yields, currant and gooseberry, 570 
estimating, apple, 2 
peach, 114 
pear, 123 

plums and prunes, 127 
quince, 133 
strawberry, 488 

Z 

Zinc arsenate, 276 



JAN 27 iS47 



